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There is evidence that demand for all types of primary energy will increase over the period 2010–2035 3.2.1 Fossil fuels Coal mining uses large volumes of water for various processes (Figure 3.1), and discharges to natural water bodies may be contaminated, while underground operations may disrupt and contaminate aquifers. For conventional oil and gas production, water injection (sometimes referred to as waterflooding) is used to pressurize fields, increasing productivity. Oil and gas extraction yields high volumes of ‘produced water’, which is water that comes out of the well along with the oil and gas. Produced water usually has very high salinity and is difficult to treat (Section 9.2.3). Underground injection into saline aquifers is one disposal method, although the water can also be treated and reused. In many cases, the volume of produced water far exceeds the volume of fuel produced. Water is used as a process input and a feedstock for process steam at refineries to upgrade crude into higher value products. Typical volumes of water needed end-to- end (from extraction through refining) for petroleum- based fuels are 7–15 litres water per litre fuel (Beal, 2012; Sanders and Webber, 2012). For natural gas, the volumes of water are approximately 20–50 litres water per barrel equivalent of oil (Lutz et al., 2013).9 Unconventional oil and gas production is generally more water intensive than conventional oil and gas production. For oil sands production in Canada and heavy oil production in Venezuela, water is used to make steam to reduce the viscosity of the fuel, easing production. Water is also a critical input for hydraulic fracturing, or ‘fracking’ (Box 3.2). For hydraulic fracturing, typical water injection volumes are 8–30 million litres per well. Approximately 250 tonnes of proppant, such as sand, is injected to hold the cracks open to increase the gas flows. The typical composition of fracking fluids is 98% sand and water and 2% chemicals (acids, surfactants, biocides and scaling inhibitors), which are added to increase productivity. As producers become more water efficient, using less water per well, the relative proportion of chemicals increases. A significant fraction of the injected fluid comes back out of the wells as wastewater (including drilling muds, flowback water and produced water). The volume of produced water that is returned varies greatly, depending on the geological characteristics of the formation; it can be as low as 15% and as high as 300%10 of the injected volume. The water intensive process produces large volumes of wastewater with high salinity and potential for containing naturally occurring radioactive materials. Further risks to water quality can occur from storage pits that are not properly lined (allowing the wastewater to trickle down into the groundwater), from spills by trucks that carry the wastewater, or by injection into waterways from wastewater treatment plants that do not adequately treat the produced water. 3.2 World primary energy demand by fuel in the New Policies Scenario 5 000 4 000 3 000 2 000 1 000 0 Oil Coal 2010 Gas Renewables Nuclear 2035 Note: ‘Renewables’ includes bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrating solar power (CSP), wind and marine (tide and wave) energy for electricity and heat generation. See Box 3.1 for an explanation of the New Policies Scenario. Source: IEA (2012a, fig. 2.3, p. 54). World Energy Outlook 2012 © OECD/IEA. 9 10 For more on the water intensity of transportation fuels, see WWAP (2012, fig. 19.5). Some wells yield higher volumes of produced water than the amount of original water that was injected. 30 CHAPTER 3 STATUS, TRENDS AND CHALLENGES Mtoe FIGUREPDF Image | Water and Energy
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