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3.2 Hydraulic fracturing: Prospects and limitations of the natural gas future Increasing energy demands and decreasing availability of conventional fuels has quickly transformed natural gas extraction from shale formations into a potentially significant energy solution for the coming decades. The controversy generated by its potential environmental impacts has arisen equally fast, especially due to risks affecting groundwater resources used for drinking water supply. C c Schematic representation of infrastructures and potential impacts Drilling towers Water storages DrillinDgriltloinwgetroswers 7 1 G9HG emissions 2 Potential sources of pollution Drilling towers Water storages Power station Emissions Potential sources of pollution 1 1 1 1 Wel 2 2 7 3 322 33 Cement 77 9 Water table 9 9 l Well 4 5 nt Cement casing Cement casing 4 Ste Steel pipe Shale Fissures Fissures Fissures Fissures Well 5 Well 4 4 casingWater table 6 8 el pipe 6 8 Steel pipe 5 Water table Steel pipe Shale 5 Water table 6 8 e Shale 7 Shal 8 9 The total amount of the world’s technically recoverable gas resources would increase more than 40% if all the shale gas resources were added to the already identified conventional gas resources (US EIA, 2011). This newly available energy source could cover 30% of the world’s total primary energy supply by 2050 (EC, 2012a). The use of ‘fracking’ in conjunction with horizontal drilling has opened up natural gas resources that had previously not been commercially viable (US EIA, 2010b). Increasing development of these unconventional resources is closely linked to the improvement of fracking technologies. Fracking is a part of the production process, even though it is commonly confused with the complete process, which includes well construction, hydraulic fracturing, production and closure (Cooley and Donnelly, 2012). Social awareness about the potential risks of fracking techniques has fostered research on the environmental impacts: land-take, air pollution, noise pollution, water contamination and withdrawal, biodiversity impacts and seismicity (EC, 2012b). Public concern is especially focused on the risks affecting drinking water resources. In fact, evidence of a relationship between methane contamination of shallow aquifers and shale gas exploitation has been recently documented (Osborn et al., 2011). Drinking water resources as well as ecosystems can be affected by contaminated water (Haluszczak et al., 2013) released by the well after injection. Besides groundwater pollution risks, local groundwater consumption by fracking might become a limiting factor, especially in arid regions where groundwater resources are generally available, unlike surface water. The fracturing process of a single well requires 7,000–18,000 m3 water (Arthur et al., 2008) distributed along a period of 30–40 years (Nicot and Scanlon, 2012). The aquifer replenishment capacity of this temporally intense groundwater demand needs to be tackled during project design, while considering possible conflicts with other groundwater uses. Other potential impacts from fracking processes are related to chemical mixing or wastewater treatment and disposal (US EPA, 2012; Howarth et al., 2011). Source: Laura del Val Alonso, IGRAC. 6 2 8Land footprint (on natural andRcisrkopoflalenadk)age from fracking fluid or from Risk of leakage from we5lls into the Power station Water storages Water storages Emissions Power station Power station Potential sources of po1llutioGnHG emissions 1 2 3 4 5 6 GHG emissions transport) 1 GRHisGk eomf eisxspiolonsion (wells, pipeRlisinkeosf, leakage from wells into the 34 Emissions Emissions Land footprint (on natural and crop land) Risk of explosion (wells, pipelines, 2 PLoatnendtfiaolostopurricnets(onf pnoalltu3trioalnand crop land) Landtfroaontpsprinotrt()onnaturalandcropwlaantde)rtable Risk of explosion (wells, pipelines, 4 produced water into the water table Rwisaktoefretxapblloesion (wells, pipelines, transport) 3 tRraisnkspoofrlte)akage from frackinRgisflkuoidf loearkfarogme from improperly treated Risk of leakage from wells into 6the 5 produced water and fracking fluids from eme asing Rpisrkoodfulceeadkawgeatferormintwoetllhseinwtoatheer table water table 4 flowback into the soil and water table Risk owfaletearkatagbelefrom fracking fluid or from Risk of leakage from improperly treated 6prodRuicsekdowf laetaekraignteofrtohme wfratcekr7itnagblfleSuimidiloarftrompoint 6, but into surface water 5 produced water and fracking fluids from produced water into the wateRr itsakbolef Infiltration of fracking fluid into the Risk of leakage from improperl8y treated flowback into the soil and water table water table; risk of migration of naturally prodRuicsekdowf laetaekraagnedffrroamckinmgpflrouipdesrflryotmreated 67 Similar to point 6, but into soucrcfaucrreinwgattoexric substances flowbparockduincteodthweastoeirlandwfractekrintagbflleuidsfrom 8 Risk of Infiltration of fracking fluid into the Impacts from improperly treated 8Similflaor wtobpaocikntin6t,obtuhteinstoilsaunrfd9acweawteartetar ble watertable;riskofmigrationprofdnucaetudrwalalyterincrops 7RiskoSfimInifilaltrrtaotiopnoionftfr6a,cbkuintginfltuoidsuinrftaoctehweater occurring toxic substances wateRritsakbolef;Irnisfikltoraftmioingroaftifornacokfingatfluuraidllyinto the occurIrminpgatoctxsicfrsoumbstiamncpersoperlytreated 9 water table; risk of migration of naturally Impaocpctrscoufdrroruimncgeimdtopwxrioacptseurbliynstracenraoctpeds produced water in crops 9 Impacts from improperly treated Sourpcreo:dPuecedduwzzaite(r2i0n1c2ro,pfisg.4,p.6). 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