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licence to operate” within each jurisdiction, so satisfying already clamorous public concerns about the related environmental and social impacts’ (Box 3.2). In spite of the uncertainties, coal is expected to remain the backbone fuel for electricity generation globally through to 2035 (Figure 3.7). Although its use for this purpose will continue to rise in absolute terms, its share in the total generation is expected to fall while the share of gas increases slightly (IEA, 2012a). Oil-fired power generation is also likely to diminish, due in part to increased competition for oil from the transportation sector. 3.3.2 Nuclear power As nuclear power generation relies on the same cooling technologies as those described above for thermal power (nuclear is a form of thermal power), the immediate water-related impacts are similar. Nuclear output is Globally, electricity demand is expected to grow by roughly 70% by 2035. This growth will be almost entirely in non-OECD countries. expected to grow in absolute terms, driven by expanded generation in China, Korea, India and Russia, but its share in the global electricity mix is expected to fall slightly over time (Table 3.3; Figure 3.7) (IEA, 2012a). In Canada and the USA, the competitiveness of nuclear power is being challenged by the growth of relatively inexpensive natural gas. 3.3.3 Hydropower Although hydropower generation is a major water user, most of the water used is returned to the river 3.2 Thermal power plant cooling system advantages and disadvantages Cooling system Advantages Disadvantages Once-through [open-loop] Low water consumption Mature technology Lower capital cost [Highest performance] High water withdrawals [with risk of impingement and entrainment of aquatic life] Impact on ecosystem Exposure to thermal discharge limits Wet tower [closed-loop] Significantly lower water withdrawal than once-through Mature technology [High performance] Higher water consumption than once-through Lower power plant efficiency [slightly lower performance than once-through] Higher capital cost than once-through [Thermal plumes] Dry Zero or minimal water withdrawal and consumption Higher capital cost relative to once- through and wet tower Lower plant efficiency, particularly when ambient temperatures are high [hot, dry days] Larger land area requirements Hybrid [wet-dry] Lower capital cost than dry cooling Reduced water consumption compared with wet tower No efficiency penalty on hot [wet] days Operational flexibility Higher capital cost than wet tower Limited technology experience Source: Adapted from IEA (2012a, table 17.2, p. 509, from source cited therein). World Energy Outlook 2012 © OECD/IEA. WWDR 2014 ENERGY’S THIRST FOR WATER 37 TABLEPDF Image | Water and Energy
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