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be challenging (e.g. cost will vary depending on location of the source and quality of the water), this option has a great potential to reduce freshwater use. One widely used alternative source is seawater, but this option only works if the power plant is located on the coast. Another option, relevant to the integration of water and energy infrastructure, is the use of wastewater for cooling. Wastewater usually contains many polluting substances such as soaps, organic matter, oils and chemicals. The treatments necessary to meet the water quality standard to avoid corrosion and other undesired effects in the cooling system can be expensive and sometimes complex. In some countries, power plant operators need to obtain permits to use reclaimed water for cooling, which can be a burden. However, in those same countries, wastewater treatment plants are often required to pre-treat municipal water before discharging it back to the source, usually to at least secondary treatment standards. This makes wastewater an attractive option for cooling. Although additional treatments might be required before running the wastewater through the cooling system (e.g. sand filtration, coagulation and chlorination), these processes are widely used in water treatment plants around the world (Veil, 2007). One important advantage of wastewater for cooling is that it is a source available all around the world, particularly in large cities. Securing wastewater from a nearby wastewater treatment plant could reduce future uncertainty and ensure a reliable, continuous water source for the power plant. Even if initial capital investment is high, it can make economic sense in the long term. This integrated solution is already being used in some countries. In the USA, wastewater is used for cooling in 50 power plants including Palo Verde in Arizona, the largest nuclear power plant in the country. Water is a scarce and valuable resource in Arizona and the power plant uses wastewater from several large cities as its only cooling source. The wastewater is piped in and re-treated on-site before use. Once run through the cooling system, the wastewater is transported to a pond where it evaporates. The power plant has recently secured 98.4 million m3 wastewater per year until 2050 (Averyt et al., 2011). An important barrier to implementing this solution worldwide is that many developing countries lack sanitation infrastructure. However, this option presents a great opportunity to plan integrated water and energy infrastructure in the future and avoid the lock-in inefficiencies of developed countries. 5.2.3 Combined heat and power plants Combined heat and power (CHP) plants (also known as cogeneration plants) integrate power and usable heat production into a single process. Whereas in conventional power plants half or more of the produced heat (on average) gets lost as waste heat (dissipated into the environment through the cooling system), in CHP plants the heat is usually used for district heating as steam or hot water. CHP plants can be implemented with most fuel sources (natural gas, coal, solar thermal), allowing them to be adapted to any environment, though different plants will achieve different efficiencies. An important advantage of CHP plants is that an integrated power and heat generation process tends to be more efficient than the two stand-alone processes (Figure 5.3), thus decreasing GHG emissions and diminishing water requirements. The combined efficiency of the heat and power processes (total energy output by energy input) can reach as high as 90% (IEA, 2008a). CHP plants rely on existing and well-known technologies and are used in many parts of the world. In Denmark about 50% of the total power generated is produced in CHP plants (IEA, 2008a). Another recent example is the city of Boston, where the Kendall power plant, which already sends heat to the Massachusetts General Hospital, will send additional heat to Boston to avoid regulatory problems due to water intake and discharges (Daley, 2011). 5.3 Sankey diagram of combined heat and power (CHP) and conventional power plants CHP Conventional methods Losses 65 40 160 160 100 100 165 Losses Source: ‘What is CHP?’ page of CHP Focus website, DEFRA, now on The National Archives. © Crown copyright 2008. Losses Heat demand Boiler Power station Power demand WWDR 2014 INFRASTRUCTURE 51 FIGUREPDF Image | Water and Energy
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