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inland fisheries by changing water flow rates and timing, fragmenting habitat and disrupting fish migration routes (Section 9.2). These issues are becoming more apparent in many river basins; the Lower Mekong is a notable example. Changing a riparian environment to a reservoir changes the community of fish in the water body. Although the fish in reservoirs can be harvested and reservoir fisheries developed, compensation for the loss in yield from river fisheries can be difficult to achieve (Marmulla, 2001). However, reservoirs can have advantages over rivers as aquaculture facilities. Fish farming in floating cages in lakes and reservoirs is an effective way to use hydroelectric dams for the direct production of food. Cage farming can help compensate farmers and fishers for losses after the building of dams. 6.4 Energy use in agrifood systems Estimates are that the food sector15 currently accounts for about 30% of the world’s total end-use energy consumption, and that more than 70% of that energy is used beyond the farm gate (FAO, 2011b). Figure 6.1 illustrates the percentage beyond production for processing, distribution, retail, preparation and cooking in countries grouped by Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Developed countries use a greater portion of this energy for processing and transport; in developing countries, cooking consumes the highest share.16 On an annual basis, the direct energy demand of primary production is about 2,200 TWh, which equates to less than 2% of total end-use energy consumption (FAO, 2011b). On-farm direct energy demand is about 1,700 TWh, and is used mainly for pumping irrigation water, housing livestock, and cultivating, harvesting, drying and storing crops (OECD, 2008, ch. 1, section 1.4, ‘Energy’). Indirect energy demands for operating tractors and other farm machinery as well as for fertilizer manufacturing is about 2,500 TWh (UK GOS, 2011). The synthesis of nitrogenous fertilizers alone consumes approximately 1,400 TWh. Global primary production in fisheries directly consumes about 550 TWh of total final energy annually, mainly for boat propulsion, pond aeration and water pumping (Muir, 2010; FAO, 2009b). Indirect energy embedded in aquaculture feedstuffs is about 140 TWh (Smil, 2008). These figures illustrate how heavily dependent agriculture is on the energy sector. Powering the pumps on a total of 300 million irrigated hectares consumes around 62 TWh/year. Manufacture and delivery of irrigation equipment consumes another 62 TWh (Smil, 2008). The 112 million ha or so globally that are irrigated by groundwater account for most of the energy used for irrigation. As groundwater irrigation, in general, provides greater flexibility than other types in responding to fluctuating water demands, its relative importance is likely to increase in the future. Groundwater for irrigation can be withdrawn from both shallow and deep aquifers. Where extraction rates from shallow groundwater stores exceed recharge rates, water abstracted from greater depths, pumped by energy intensive electric pumps, will likely become more important. Avoiding groundwater depletion, through sustainable groundwater management, can lead to long- term cost and energy savings (Section 2.3). 6.1 Indicative shares of final energy consumption for the food sector globally and for high and low Gross Domestic Product (GDP) countries 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Global ~95 EJ/year High GDP countries ~50 EJ/year Processing and distribution Low GDP countries ~45 EJ/year Fisheries distribution Retail, preparation and cooking Livestock production production Source: FAO (2011b, fig. 6, p. 11, based on sources cited therein). Cropping 15 16 In this context, ‘food sector’ concerns those parts of ’agriculture’ in the broad FAO sense; that is, agriculture, forestry and fisheries that produce food as well as the food processing, distribution, retail, preparation and cooking phases. For a comprehensive examination of water use, see WWAP (2012, chs 2, ‘Water demand: What drives consumption’ and 18, ‘Managing water along the livestock value chain’). 56 CHAPTER 6 THEMATIC FOCUS Energy consumption (%) FIGUREPDF Image | Water and Energy
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