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for marginal land, which provides important ecosystem services such as pasture land or fuel wood for local traditional communities (Cotula et al., 2008). Marginal land is also a target for rehabilitation for food production or sequestering carbon (e.g. forest regrowth). Biofuels have been heavily debated due to concerns over trade-offs with food security. The debate has largely focused on first generation biofuels: ethanol and biodiesel produced from feedstock such as maize, sugarcane and palm oil.17 The contribution of biofuels to the recent food price increases is difficult to disentangle from other factors such as rising food demand in emerging economies, declining food stocks, fluctuating oil and natural gas prices, commodity speculation, and a succession of low harvests in major food producing regions. Nonetheless, the demand for agricultural feedstock for biofuels is the largest source of new demand for agricultural production in decades, and it was a major factor behind the 2007−2008 spike in world commodity prices. For example, FAO (2011c) estimates that biofuels accounted for about one-third of the maize price increase. This raises concerns about the implications that global biofuel production may have on food security in developing countries. When considering feedstock production for biofuels, the most important distinguishing characteristic of a biofuel from a water systems perspective is whether it is produced from rainfed or irrigated feedstock crops. In general, rainfed production does not substantially alter the water cycle, whereas irrigated production extracts groundwater or uses surface water and can have important implications for local water availability. When assessing the impact of biofuel production on water and food security, land is the key factor for rainfed agriculture, while water is the key factor for irrigated agriculture. Water used in biofuel processing is a strong competitor for local uses, but it can be returned to rivers and other water bodies and made available for further use. However, these return flows often have negative impacts due to chemical and thermal pollution. 17 Other first generation feedstocks include sunflower and other oilseeds, cassava, and wheat and other grains. 6.2 Water consumed through evapotranspiration per unit bioenergy feedstock production and per unit gross bioenergy production Biofuel Feedstock Energy crop evapotranspiration (ET)a (tonne water per GJ feedstock) Total water use in the production chain (tonne water per GJ gross electricity or biofuel output) Traditional food crop Low case High case Low case High case Biodiesel Rapeseed 45 80 100 175 Ethanol Sugarcane 25 125 35 155 Sugar beet 55 150 70 190 Corn 35 190 75 345 Wheat 20 200 40 350 Lignocellulosic cropb 5 70 Ethanol 10 170 Methanol 10 135 Hydrogen 10 125 Electricity 15 195 Note: 1 GJ = 277.8 kWh. a Lower range numbers refer to systems where (a) harvest residues from non-lignocellulosic crops (50% total amount of residues) are used for power production at 45% efficiency or (b) higher efficiencies in processing lignocellulosic crops are achieved. When ethanol is produced from sugarcane or lignocellulosic feedstocks, process by-products (bagasse and lignin, respectively) are used for internal heat and electricity. Here, lower range numbers refer to system designs allowing for export of electricity in excess of internal requirements. b For example, short rotation woody crops such as willow and eucalyptus and grasses such as miscanthus and switchgrass. Source: Adapted from Berndes (2002, table 2, p. 259, based on sources cited therein). 58 CHAPTER 6 THEMATIC FOCUS TABLEPDF Image | Water and Energy
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