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2011d). Mechanical irrigation systems should be designed to use water as efficiently as possible. Crops often take up only half of the irrigation water applied (FAO, 2011d), so there is clearly potential to improve water use efficiency, which would also result in less demand for electricity or diesel fuel for pumping. However, much controversy and debate exist about the engineering concept of ‘water use efficiency’ (FAO, 2012). It is widely accepted that, while irrigation losses appear high, a large part of these ‘losses’ return to the river basin in the form of return flow or aquifer recharge, although the water quality of the return flows may have been altered. Measures to increase water use efficiencies upstream, while maintaining existing levels of withdrawal, will increase the productive efficiency of water use, but at the same time, may deprive downstream users who depend on return flow in rivers or groundwater aquifers fed from these returns. Still, from the energy point of view, it remains worthwhile to increase water use efficiencies to prevent energy being spent in pumping the same water twice (upstream and again downstream). Dam and reservoir design that accommodates fisheries and aquaculture will allow continued food production from rivers that are dammed for hydroelectric development. To protect increasingly scarce water resources for food and energy production, in terms of both quantity and quality, increased attention is required for water management in upstream and mountain areas. Watershed management is an appropriate approach that comprehensively considers management of all available natural resources, and links this management to agricultural production and livelihoods (Section 9.3.5). Through proper watershed management, the risk of some natural hazards (such as landslides and localized floods) can be reduced, surface water flows regulated, sediment loads in river systems reduced and water quality maintained – all indispensable characteristics for successful and sustainable food and hydropower production. Optimizing the management of storage capacity of reservoirs and catchments, including soils Market trends, technological innovations and the availability of cheap (but not necessarily energy efficient) equipment can increase the use of energy in agriculture and groundwater, offers opportunities for improved efficiencies; for example, drawing upon groundwater reserves at times of low reservoir capacity and enabling groundwater to recharge when reservoirs are full. Market trends, technological innovations and the availability of cheap (but not necessarily energy efficient) equipment can increase the use of energy in agriculture. For example, public policy changes to subsidize fossil fuels have stimulated the import of innovative, cheap Chinese- made farm machinery to Bangladesh, which has led to the country’s ‘agro-tractorization’. Small, mobile diesel engines that are demountable and can be used for a range of applications, including powering pumps for irrigation, have increased food production and economic returns to farmers (Steele, 2011). The diesel engines can be repaired easily by local mechanics and are less expensive than more sophisticated and more fuel efficient machinery manufactured in India. Seeing these results, Nepalese and Indian farm machinery manufacturers have recognized a new business opportunity. Small engines are now being sold mainly in low-cost farm machinery markets in rural communities. Farm services have expanded as a result of the versatility and transportability of this equipment (Biggs and Justice, 2011). This example illustrates how inexpensive fossil fuels, made available and affordable through government subsidies, have delivered benefits to smallholder farmers using inexpensive diesel-powered farm machinery. Subsidizing energy, in the form of fossil fuels, has benefited smallholder farmers in Bangladesh without over-exploiting water resources; however, energy subsidies in the form of cheap electricity in the drier parts of India have had detrimental effects on groundwater levels (Section 1.4). It is estimated that in India one million new tube wells become operational every year. In some parts of India, these wells are drilled ever deeper over time to obtain a consistent groundwater yield. More energy is needed and the quality of the extracted water is often poor, with high levels of harmful chemicals such as arsenic. In Gujarat, one of the drier states in India, policies to ration farm power supply, and thus water supply, have been recommended to encourage farmers to use water more sparingly (IWMI, 2011). Modernization of existing canal irrigation systems to improve services may encourage farmers to reduce groundwater use, as it is often more expensive than surface water supply of similar quality. Modernized 60 CHAPTER 6 THEMATIC FOCUSPDF Image | Water and Energy
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