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the challenge of providing adequate and sustainable water and energy services in the urban context. 7.2 Urban water and energy demands Cities are complex systems that use inputs such as water, energy, food, materials and nutrients, much of which is imported from outside, and produce outputs such as waste, wastewater and emissions that pollute the surrounding environment. Growing urban populations and their increasing affluence generally lead to higher energy and water consumption for domestic use. In India for example, the government’s norm for rural water supply schemes is 40 litres per capita per day (l.p.c.d.), but for towns without sewers it is 70 l.p.c.d., for cities with sewers it is 135 l.p.c.d., and for metropolitan and mega cities, with populations over 1 million, it is as high as 150 l.p.c.d. (CPHEEO, 1999). While these are design standards, the actual demand for water in these cities could be higher. Mumbai, for example, claims its water demand to be 300 l.p.c.d. (Narain, 2012). In the USA, which has a much higher per capita income than India, domestic indoor water use in cities averages 242 l.p.c.d. However, with the addition of outdoor irrigation, swimming pools and pipeline leakages the total per capita water usage in the USA reaches almost 650 l.p.c.d. (Novotny, 2012). Although per capita water consumption generally increases with affluence, experience from some high income cities indicates that this relationship need not be linear, as some cities have started reducing their per capita water consumption after reaching a certain income level. This is mainly due to adoption of improved water conservation measures in homes, reduction in water losses (including leakage from urban distribution systems) and enhanced awareness among consumers. Per capita water consumption in New York City declined from 806 l.p.c.d. in 1980 to 481 l.p.c.d. in 2010 (NYC, 2012), a drop of more than 40%. Figure 7.2, comparing per capita income with per capita water consumption in selected Asian cities, also illustrates this phenomenon. Singapore’s per capita GDP is more than twice that of neighbouring Kuala Lumpur, but its per capita water demand is much lower. The same is the case of Guangzhou and Hong Kong. This indicates that while there is bound to be rapid increase in water demand as cities continue to grow, there is also room to restrict the growth of per capita water demand or reduce it by using water conservation measures. In addition to the water they directly consume, urban residents tend to have a large water footprint because of higher incomes, which is generally associated with a higher level of consumption of water intensive foods (Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2004) and economic structures that enable people in cities to have reliable supplies of water intensive goods. As this virtual demand of cities could exceed direct water use by an order of magnitude (Hoekstra and Chapagain, 2008), efforts can be made towards reducing this external water footprint.18 Cities not only consume large amounts of water, their high concentration of industry, transport systems and buildings also demands large amounts of energy. Cities are home to just over 50% of the global population, but they consume 60% to 80% of the commercial energy and emit about 75% of the GHGs (IEA, 2008b; UNEP, 2011b). As with water consumption, per capita energy consumption in cities depends on factors such as urban design, income levels, climate and consumption patterns of citizens. High density compact cities tend to have lower per capita energy consumption because less energy is required for transportation as well as for provision of services such as water supply and sanitation. The difference between energy consumption in rural and urban areas also depends on the level of development. In industrialized countries, the per capita energy use of city residents is slightly lower than the national average, 18 ' Water footprint’ and ‘virtual water’ are defined in Section 8.3. 7.2 Water consumption and per capita income in selected Asian cities 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 000 20 000 Annual GDP per person (US$) 60 000 70 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 Note: Years differ from city to city from 2005 to 2009. Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per person in US$ is based on current prices at the time. Source: UNDP (2012, fig. 5.3, p. 125, based on source cited therein). WWDR 2014 CITIES 63 Water consumption (litres/day) FIGUREPDF Image | Water and Energy
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