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but in developing countries where the per capita energy consumption in rural areas is very low, urban residents have much higher per capita energy consumption. For example, the per capita energy use in urban China is almost twice as high as the national average due to higher average incomes and better access to modern energy services in the cities (IEA, 2008b). More than 90% of the future urbanization will happen in developing countries, resulting in a huge increase in global energy demand, which in turn will result in increasing water demand. The IEA (2012a) predicts that the water needs for energy production will grow at twice the rate of energy demand. The rapid growth of cities will therefore result in serious challenges associated with access to both water and energy in cities and their surrounding areas. 7.3 The water–energy nexus in the urban context Water supply and wastewater management are significant consumers of energy in the urban context. The United States Environmental Protection Agency estimates that the supply of treated water and wastewater management consumes 3% of the total energy use by cities in the USA, but in some states (e.g. California) it can be as high as 20% (Novotny, 2012). The amount of energy required at each step varies significantly depending on site-specific conditions including distance to the water source, its quality (and in the case of groundwater, its depth), and the technologies used. Electricity costs are estimated at 5% to 30% of the total operating cost of water and wastewater utilities (World Bank, 2012b), but in some developing countries such as India and Bangladesh, it is as high as 40% of the total operating cost (Van Den Berg and Danilenko, 2011). A survey of water and wastewater management in 71 Indian cities found that electricity is the single highest cost for water utilities. In some cities, such as Jodhpur, where water is pumped and transported from the Indira Gandhi Canal more than 200 km away, electricity cost is as high as 77% of the total operating cost (Narain, 2012). As cities continue to grow, they will have to go further or dig deeper to obtain water, which will further increase demand for energy, particularly in developing countries where energy is already in short supply and in many cases expensive. Energy supply will therefore have direct implications on availability as well as affordability of water in the rapidly growing cities of developing countries in the future. In urban water supply and wastewater management systems, water conveyance and the use of advanced water treatment options are generally the most energy intensive activities (Figure 7.3). Water reuse may also require significant energy, depending on the technology used, but this is still less energy intensive than desalination or transporting water over extremely long distances (Lazarova et al., 2012). 7.3 Typical energy footprint of the major steps in water cycle management with examples from different treatment plants using specific technologies 5 4 3 2 1 0 5.0 2.5 kWh/m3, State Water Project, CA 1.5 0.2 Water treatment 2.9 kWh/m3, Desalination Ashkelon, Israel 4.0 2.5 Water conveyance 0.53 kWh/m3, GWRS, Orange County, CA 2.5 0.35 kWh/m3, StrassWWTP, Austria 1.4 2.5 Membrane bioreactor 1.5 1.0 Brackish water desalination 2.5 Seawater desalination 1.1 0.1 0.24 0.05 Water distribution 0.3 0.16 Preliminary treatment 0.4 0.6 0.25 1.4 0.5 1.4 0.2 1.2 0.3 Rainwater harvesting 0.24 0.3 Trickling filters Activated Activated sludge sludge with nitrification Water reuse Note: GWRS, groundwater replenishment system; WWTP, wastewater treatment plant. Source: Lazarova et al. (2012, fig. 23.1, p. 316, adapted from sources cited therein). © IWA Publishing, reproduced with permission. 64 CHAPTER 7 THEMATIC FOCUS Energy consumption (kWh/m3) FIGUREPDF Image | Water and Energy
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