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Desalination is the most energy intensive water treatment technology (Section 2.3). The energy cost of treating low salinity seawater is about ten times greater than a typical freshwater source and about double the energy cost of treating wastewater for reuse (Pearce, 2012). Desalination is therefore an appropriate option only when there are no other sources or the cost of energy for transporting water is very high. As shown in Figure 7.3, even an efficient desalination plant such as the Ashkelon plant in Israel, which requires 2.9 kWh/m3, is more energy intensive than the transportation of water over long distances in California, which requires 2.5 kWh/m3. However, the desalination industry is working on reducing energy costs. The International Desalination Association has a goal of achieving a 20% energy reduction by 2015, and some companies have started to experiment with using renewable energy for desalination. Abengoa Water has set up a pilot plant in Spain, and Abu Dhabi’s renewable energy company Masdar has announced plans to launch three new projects to test the use of renewables for desalination. By 2020, Masdar aims to have a large-scale commercial desalination plant powered by renewable sources – solar, wind or a combination thereof (Newar, 2013). [ See Chapter 20 (Volume 2) for the case study ‘Desalination in Gulf Cooperation Council countries’. ] Once treated water is supplied to consumers, water heating may also consume large amounts of energy, particularly in cities with cold climates and in affluent cities. In Sweden, for example, it is estimated that collection, treatment and supply of water requires only about 0.46 kWh/m3 of energy but heating water at the point of use consumes more than 100 times more energy – over 50 kWh/m3 (Olsson, 2012). As cities become more affluent and consumers start demanding the convenience of hot water systems in their homes, the energy requirement for water supply will increase further, unless renewable energy options such as solar water heaters can be promoted. 7.4 Re-thinking urban development in terms of water and energy As cities continue to grow rapidly, it will become increasingly difficult and energy intensive to meet the water demands of their populations and economies. Low- cost surface and groundwater sources have been depleted or contaminated in many urbanized areas (Lazarova et al., 2012). Many experts (e.g. Daigger, 2009; Novotny, 2012) agree that abstracting freshwater from a surface or groundwater source, using it, and disposing of it – known as a ‘linear approach’ – is not sustainable. Future urban development requires approaches that minimize resource consumption and focus on resource recovery. [ See Chapter 28 (Volume 2) for the case study ‘Water and energy linkage in Austin, Texas, USA’. ] Novotny (2012) presents a three-phase model for the relationship between water demand and energy use (Figure 7.4). The model suggests that in the first phase, up to 65% of water demand and energy consumption could be saved in some US cities just by implementing simple water conservation measures, such as efficient water appliances, reduction in leaks and dry landscaping (i.e. xeriscaping). In the second phase, cities can augment their water supply through additional sources and treating and reusing stormwater, although this will not result in significant decrease in energy demand as in phase one. The third phase involves advanced water treatment options such as reverse osmosis water recycling systems and desalination plants. Although these advanced systems are energy intensive, they can offer a reliable source of water and their additional energy inputs may be countered by the use of efficient technology and renewable energy sources. 7.4.1 Energy efficiency in water and wastewater management As energy cost is usually the greatest expenditure for water and wastewater utilities, water and energy audits to identify and reduce water and energy losses and Many experts agree that abstracting freshwater from a surface or groundwater source, using it, and disposing of it – known as a ‘linear approach’ – is not sustainable. Future urban development requires approaches that minimize resource consumption and focus on resource recovery. WWDR 2014 CITIES 65PDF Image | Water and Energy
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