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enhance energy efficiency can result in substantial energy and financial savings to the utilities. The World Bank (2012b) estimates that technical measures to improve energy efficiency can result in 10% to 30% energy savings per measure and can have as little as a one- to five-year payback period. In 2003, the Vizianagaram Municipal Council in India introduced the concept of Watergy (energy and water efficiency), conducted energy audits of the municipal bulk water supply systems, and implemented a series of efficiency measures. The city managed to save more than 100 MWh and US$63,700 annually, while lowering energy costs by 18% and eliminating 600 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions (UN-Habitat-IUTC, 2012). A solar powered wastewater treatment plant under development in Los Alisos, Mexico, is expected to be energy self-sufficient. [ See Chapter 27 (Volume 2) for the case study ‘Solar powered wastewater treatment plant in Mexico'. ] 7.4.2 Urban planning and integrated urban water management Water and energy consumption in cities can be reduced during early stages of urban planning through development of compact settlements and investment in systems for integrated urban water management (IUWM), such as conservation of water sources, use of multiple water sources – including rainwater harvesting, stormwater management and wastewater reuse – and treatment of water as needed rather than treatment of all water to a potable standard (Box 7.1). High density mixed land use settlements can significantly reduce water and energy consumption compared to low density land use settlements, which require large amounts of water for irrigation of outdoor landscaping and energy for transporting water and sewage over long distances. A study on residential water use in 12 Western US cities showed that in all of the cities, more than half of the household water consumption was for outdoor irrigation. However, the community of Civano in Tucson, Arizona, has managed to reduce its use of potable water to 197 l.p.c.d. – less than half the average amount consumed by other Tucson residents – through innovative development planning and landscape design. The Civano community has smaller than average lot sizes and primarily uses native plants for landscaping, which require less irrigation water. Each house in Civano also has two water supply lines: potable water for indoor use and reclaimed water for outdoor use (WRA, 2003). As indicated in Figure 7.4, the use of water conservation measures and reclaimed water results in significant reductions in energy demand. As many cities of the future are yet to be built or are in the process of being built, better urban planning with efficient, integrated systems for urban water management and the conservation of water resources can go a long way in reducing both water and energy demand in cities (Box 7.2). 7.4.3 Energy from wastewater Wastewater contains energy in the form of potential energy, thermal energy and chemically bound energy, all of which can be harnessed and utilized. The potential energy in wastewater depends on the topography’s available head, or difference in height. However, even at a height of 50 m, the potential energy content of water or wastewater is only 6 kWh per capita per year (Lazarova et al., 2012). This energy source is therefore is limited to areas with favourable topography. In Amman, as the altitude difference between the city and the As-Samra wastewater treatment plant is about 100 m and the altitude difference between the plant and the outlet is 42 m, the plant is able to generate about 3 MW of electrical energy by operating two turbines before the plant and two after it. When added to what its four biogas digesters generate (Box 16.5), the plant becomes nearly energy self-sufficient (Lazarova et al., 2012). In high rise buildings, treated wastewater from the upper 7.4 A three-phase model of the water–energy nexus (without energy recovery) 0 100 Water conservation only Water conservation and stormwater treatment and reuse Reuse limit Energy form renewable sources Water conservation, used water reclamation and reuse by reverse osmosis Water demand reduction (%) Source: Novotny (2012, fig. 3.2, p. 39). © IWA Publishing, reproduced with permission. 66 CHAPTER 7 THEMATIC FOCUS Energy use (kWh) FIGUREPDF Image | Water and Energy
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