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dependent on readily available water (Chapter 3), and this dependency impacts water-related ecosystems in a variety of ways. If adequate water is not available at the right place at the right time and in the right quantity and quality, ecosystem functions and services, and subsequently energy production, can be negatively affected. Life-cycle environmental impact assessment (EIA) methods are available to quantify and rank impacts of various types of energy generation. Water consumption often is included into these methods, though environmental impacts of water use can also be determined. A focus on ecosystem services in EIA can help the approach move beyond impact assessment towards a comparison of options; for example, various biofuel crops, to determine which is most sustainable (Coleby et al., 2012). Funding organizations such as the World Bank emphasize the need to match development with environmental sustainability, such as green growth in the energy sector (World Bank, 2013b). 9.2.1 Hydropower Hydropower is the largest renewable source of electricity generation (Figure 3.5), and although it uses water flows as the source of energy, most of the water that passes through hydropower plants can be used for other purposes afterwards (Section 3.3.3). Large dams are often built to create reservoirs, the functioning of which relies on vegetation and healthy soils upstream to protect the reservoir from sedimentation and regulate the flow of water to it. Many well-designed and operated reservoirs include catchment management. From an environmental perspective, an important issue in hydropower generation, as for dams and reservoirs in general, is the fragmentation of river systems with far-reaching impacts on ecosystem services that benefit human activities, economies and development (GEA, 2012). A recent global assessment indicates that of the 292 large rivers studied, 172 are already seriously affected and fragmented by dams (Nilsson et al., 2005), obstructing upstream and downstream fish migration. Damming for power production and artificial regulation of flows can affect the timing of water flows: often it reduces or eliminates seasonal floods and negatively affects river ecology, adjacent floodplains and wetlands. This in turn has an impact on the breeding grounds of aquatic species (affecting protein stock and fisheries), groundwater recharge, soil fertility, agricultural productivity, biodiversity and water quality (e.g. Herath et al., 2011; Opperman et al., 2011; see also Section 6.2). Another impact of dams is the reduced levels of sediments transported downstream, which undermines coastal ecosystem integrity through loss of the land-stabilizing benefits of healthy sediment flows. In some cases, this could increase vulnerability to storm events. Globally, dams in river systems are estimated to trap 4–5 Gt/year (Vörösmarty et al., 2003), or approximately 25%, of total sediment transport (GEA, 2012). 9.2.2 Bioenergy Bioenergy refers to the renewable energy derived from biomass or biological sources, such as firewood, biofuels, agricultural by-products, charcoal, peat and dung. Globally, renewables (including hydropower) account for 18% of the primary energy used in the world (Figure 9.2). Bioenergy dominates, accounting for 78% of renewables (14.1% of the total), the majority of which comes from traditional biomass (68% of bioenergy) (Banerjee et al., 2013). More than two billion people in the world rely on firewood and charcoal for their daily energy needs (REN21, 2012) (Table 1.1). When used for cooking indoors, this leads to high levels of indoor air pollution, affecting particularly poor women and children (Section 1.1). Biomass is also used on a larger scale for the generation of electricity in power plants consuming wood chips and forest residues (Figure 9.2). 9.2 Global total final energy consumption (TFEC) versus share of renewable energy (RE) 70 16.6% 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 17.2% 17.4% 17.0% 18.0% 2000 Other RE Traditional Biomass 1990 1995 2005 2010 Modern Biomass RE share in TFEC Hydro Source: Banerjee et al. (2013, fig. 4.5, p. 209, based on IEA data cited therein). © World Bank, Washington, DC. WWDR 2014 ECOSYSTEMS 79 Global TFEC (petajoule) FIGUREPDF Image | Water and Energy
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