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Water quality can be degraded at every step of the fuel cycle (Allen et al., 2012) in fossil fuel production and use. Extraction, refining and combustion of fossil fuels can pollute water in many ways, through both regular operations and accidental releases. Approximately 15–18 billion m3 per year freshwater resources are contaminated by fossil fuel production, with significant implications for ecosystems and the communities that depend on the water for drinking or to support their livelihoods. At the global level, the single greatest water impact generated by fossil fuels comes from their combustion and the subsequent climate change, which will have major, long-term impacts on water availability and quality across the planet (Allen et al., 2012). Hydraulic fracturing uses large amounts of water to extract oil or natural gas from deep rocks (Section 3.2.1). The risk of significant effects due to water abstraction could be high where there are multiple installations. Hydraulic fracturing has recently come under international scrutiny due to its potential environmental impacts. Several studies point out risks to surface water and groundwater contamination, freshwater depletion, biodiversity impacts, land-take, air pollution, noise pollution and seismicity (EC, 2012b; US EPA, 2013). Risks include discharges into surface waters, disposal into underground injection wells, spills or faulty construction, explosions from pipeline construction, water contamination with toxic substances (leading to long term-health impacts), and soil and air pollution (Peduzzi, 2012; IEA, 2012d). 9.2.4 Thermal power plants Many thermal power plants use water from nearby rivers or lakes for various processes, especially cooling. Cooling water intake structures can have adverse effects on aquatic fauna, while water released back into water bodies is usually very warm and sterile, disrupting local aquatic ecosystems and potentially altering local habitats and species (Teixeira et al., 2009; Yi-Li et al., 2009). Water in most fossil fuel power plants is also used in other processes, such as flue gas desulfurization, ash handling, coal washing and dust removal. These add pollutants to the water streams, which can have negative impacts on the ecosystem. Moreover, air emissions from thermal power plants’ fuel combustion can contain mercury, sulphur and nitrogen oxides, among other chemicals, which may settle and impact water quality and aquatic ecosystems downstream. 9.3 An ecosystems approach to the water–energy nexus Expansions of all types of energy generation should be planned with an ecosystem perspective (Hoff, 2011). While formal EIAs can quantify the effects that energy generation and water use have on the environment, IWRM can make an ecosystem approach operational in the context of green growth. IWRM encompasses systematic basin hydropower planning, strategic basin water allocation and environmental flows assessment. These all necessitate valuation and use of natural infrastructure. Tools that further support the application of an ecosystems approach include payments for environmental services (PES), remediation through sustainable dam management and strategic basin water investment. Some tools that are most relevant for water management as an entry to the nexus are highlighted below. 9.3.1 Valuing natural infrastructure Nature can provide critical infrastructure functions for energy provision – in many cases this natural or ‘green’ infrastructure can complement, augment or replace the services provided by traditional engineered infrastructure (Krchnak et al., 2011). Mixed infrastructure in river basins may result in cost-effectiveness, risk management and sustainable development that are closer to optimal. Improved water resources and natural infrastructure in the form of healthy ecosystems can reinforce each other and generate benefits in the water–energy–food nexus (Hoff, 2011). Ongoing degradation of water and land resources in river basins threatens energy provision. It could be reversed through protection and restoration initiatives, re-establishing natural capacities that support protection against increased climate variability and extreme events (Bergkamp et al., 2003). Some examples of natural infrastructure are described below. · Wetlands deliver a range of ecosystem services (Krchnak et al., 2011), including regulation of water flows. However, headwater wetlands may actually increase flood flows and decrease low flows (McCartney et al., 2013). Wise use of wetlands is essential for maintaining an infrastructure that can help meet a wide range of policy objectives, including the provision of energy (Box 16.5). · Healthy floodplains reduce downstream flood peaks by giving rivers the space they need to dissipate peak flows (McCartney et al., 2013; V&W, 2006). WWDR 2014 ECOSYSTEMS 81PDF Image | Water and Energy
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