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The regional chapters of Part 3 cover Europe and North America, Asia and the Pacific, the Arab region, Latin America and the Caribbean, and Africa. The delineation of the five regions follows the regional division of the United Nations regional economic commissions (UNECA, UNECE, UNECLAC, UNESCAP and UNESCWA; maps of the Member States can be found in the fourth edition of the WWDR [WWAP, 2012, ch. 7]). For the Arab region and Africa chapters, it was decided (in agreement with UNECA and UNESCWA) that all the Arab countries would be reported on in the Arab region chapter rather than having some of them included in the Africa chapter. 10 Europe and North America UNECE Annukka Lipponen The UNECE region, extending from North America, through Europe to Central Asia, is highly diverse in terms of water resources availability, energy sources and energy mix, and socio-economic development. While the challenges at the interface of water and energy differ, a few major issues emerge across the region. Renewed interest in hydropower may allow capacity expansion of other renewable energy sources, reduce carbon dioxide emissions and, in some cases, better cope with the predicted increase in variability of flows. However, there are also related concerns. In many areas, hydropower generation is in conflict with other water uses, notably irrigated agriculture. Hydropower is one of the main drivers of hydromorphological alteration, loss of connectivity and change in the flow of water and sediment. In the EU in particular, numerous projects are under way to address the negative impacts of hydromorphological changes, such as restoration of habitats and river continuity (e.g. ICPR, 2010). Because of concerns related to the safety of nuclear power plants, many European countries (e.g. Germany, Sweden, Switzerland) are presently considering reducing or even phasing out nuclear power generation. Freshwater supplies are increasingly augmented by highly energy intensive methods (e.g. desalination), especially where water scarcity prevails. Limited policy coherence may aggravate the situation because of the complex interlinkages between water and energy issues. Informing policy formulation requires suitable data and information (OECD, 2010a). Where transboundary impacts may occur, consistency of data across borders is necessary for an accurate and holistic view. A better understanding of inter-sectoral impacts, trade-offs and benefits is needed to inform dialogue. The recent call for a coordinated approach to better manage energy and water trade-offs in the USA resonates with the rest of the UNECE region: improved energy and water planning will require better coordination among national/federal agencies and other stakeholders as well as consideration of impacts to both resources (US GAO, 2013). Uncertainties in climate change, population growth and demographic shifts are expected to exacerbate the challenges associated with managing both the supply and demand of water and energy, and need to be accounted for when developing national policies (Howells et al., 2013; US GAO, 2013). 10.1 Hydropower The region’s hydropower sector is mature, and developments focus on modernizing and refurbishing existing plants as well as expanding pumped storage capability (Figure 10.1). In Europe and in North America, some 65% and 61%, respectively, of hydropower generation potential is estimated to have been already developed, according to the IEA (IEA-EC, n.d.). Some countries are still developing new capacity. Additional pumped storage facilities to balance supply with demand are under construction in the European Economic Area24 and the USA. In 2008, hydropower generated 16% of Europe’s electricity; there are currently more than 7,000 WWDR 2014 EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA 85 CHAPTERPDF Image | Water and Energy
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