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although there are examples of joint management of regulation infrastructure. Hydropower development projects are planned in South-Eastern Europe and in the Caucasus, many of them on transboundary rivers; for example, the Sava, Bosna, Morača, Vjosa and Devoll in South-Eastern Europe (ECA-Watch/Euronatur, 2012) and the upper reaches of the Aras and the Kura in Turkey as well as the Çoruh. In Central Asia the conflict between sectoral water uses is particularly prominent. The construction of a number of new dams, mainly for hydropower but also for irrigation purposes, was initiated in the 2000s, with ongoing and planned projects at least on the Naryn, Tejen and Vakhsh rivers. Some of these are heavily disputed between the riparian countries due to concerns about transboundary effects. Because of facility ageing and inadequate maintenance, concern has grown in recent years over the safety of more than 100 large dams and other control facilities in Central Asia, located mostly on transboundary rivers (UNECE, 2011a). Responses to intersectoral conflicts over water use can include a more commercial approach to structuring and regulating energy markets (World Bank 2010c); a wider view of the benefits of cooperation (going beyond allocating volumes of water); and a strengthened institutional basis for project development and management (UNECE, 2011a; Granit et al., 2012).26 Such responses also relate to the water–energy–food nexus Improved energy and water planning will require better coordination among national/ federal agencies and other stakeholders as well as consideration of impacts to both resources in a broad sense. Shortcomings in energy infrastructure and trade as well as problems in transboundary and broader cooperation in Central Asia do not presently allow for resolution of the conflict between water use for hydropower and irrigated agriculture. Environmental impact assessments of planned infrastructure projects with potential significant adverse transboundary effects on shared waters should be carried out more systematically.27 10.3 Coping with water scarcity Inefficient use of water leads to higher energy use, with extra financial and environmental costs. However, even the application of more efficient irrigation methods may introduce higher energy requirements (Box 10.1; Chapter 6). Southern European countries and parts of the USA are increasingly using desalination to meet their water needs, with significant implications on energy consumption. 10.4 Climate change outlook and effects of water scarcity on thermoelectric power plants Thermoelectric power plants produce 91% of total electricity in the USA and 78% in Europe. Cooling water scarcity during recent warm, dry summers led several thermal (nuclear and fossil-fuelled) power plants in Europe and the south-eastern USA to reduce production. Climate change is expected to aggravate the situation in areas where lower summer flows and higher river water 10.1 Complex impacts of modernizing irrigation and the role of energy Irrigated agriculture in Spain went through a rapid transformation from 2002 to 2009, and currently accounts for 40% of the country’s total water-related electricity demand. The use of drip irrigation systems, involving replacement of gravity irrigation systems, increased by 40% between 2002 and 2008. The net electricity consumed in irrigation increased by 10% per volume unit during the same period. However, from 2006 to 2008 the price for energy increased by 30% to 70% and energy consumption dropped, illustrating the complex dynamics of the situation. Modernizing irrigation systems requires major investment and there is a risk that water consumption will increase and returns will decrease. Consequently, a thorough assessment of possible increases in energy consumption must be made: how they can be met, at what cost and with what impacts on the environment. Source: UNECE, from Hardy et al. (2012). 26 27 The UNECE’s assessment of water-food-energy-ecosystems in selected transboundary river basins (2013–2015) will provide analysis as well as further the identification of and dialogue on opportunities for synergy and cooperation. Guidance on such assessment is provided by UNECE instruments: the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki Convention) and the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention). WWDR 2014 EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA 87 BOxPDF Image | Water and Energy
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