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temperatures are anticipated (van Vliet et al., 2012). An increase in and spread of water scarcity and stress is predicted to affect about half the river basins in the EU by 2030 (EC, 2012c). Countries that depend on imported energy may also be exposed to effects of change and variation in climatic conditions (e.g. the Netherlands; Rübbelke and Vögele, 2011). In Western Europe and the USA, roughly 50% of water is abstracted for energy production as cooling water, and the majority of this is discharged to water bodies at a higher temperature (EEA, 2009). 10.5 Extraction of natural gas and oil from unconventional sources The USA has experienced a tremendous expansion of natural gas extraction from unconventional sources28 with hydraulic fracturing (‘fracking’), due to technical developments that have made the extraction more economically viable (IEA, 2012d; Cooley and Donnelly, 2012). Between 2005 and 2010, shale gas production in the USA grew more than 45% per year. Parts of the UNECE region also have potential unconventional natural gas resources, some of which have been explored, notably in France, Germany, Poland, Sweden and the United Kingdom (UK). Increasing indigenous energy production and diversifying energy sources are behind the appeal of unconventional natural gas resources, but concerns about the impacts of hydraulic fracturing on the environment and on water resources specifically (Section 3.2.1) have raised public opposition in the above-mentioned countries (IEA, 2012d). Canada faces water management challenges related to exploiting large, low-quality unconventional petroleum reserves in oil (tar) sands (e.g. University of Toronto/ University of Alberta, 2007). Medium- and long-term impacts remain unclear, and recent independent reports emphasize the need for improved monitoring to ensure the sustained functioning of aquatic ecosystems and public health in human settlements downstream (CESD, 2010; Royal Society of Canada, 2010). 28 Definitions of the categories are available from IEA (2012d, p. 18). 88 CHAPTER 10 REGIONAL ASPECTSPDF Image | Water and Energy
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