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electricity services, which has forced some water utilities to provide intermittent water services to urban and rural communities (UNESCWA, 2009a). Civil crises and unrest in the region have also affected delivery of basic services, while energy shortages affect the ability to supply water. Unaccounted-for water in Arab countries is estimated to vary between 15% and 60%, whereas the best practice rate ranges from less than 10% for new systems to 25% for older systems (World Bank, 2009). The high percentage of water losses in Arab countries is coupled with high energy losses, which further increases the cost of service provision (Box 12.1). This challenge is all the more true when water is sourced from desalination plants. 12.2 Informing technology choice and renewable energy options The Arab region is situated in a sunbelt that receives about 300 sunny days per year. The annual direct solar irradiation in all Arab countries exceeds the defined threshold for economic potential for concentrating solar power (UNESCWA, 2010). This has prompted research and development and investment in solar desalination in the Mashreq and Maghreb (Box 12.2) (see Chapter 20 [Volume 2] for the case study ‘Desalination in Gulf Cooperation Council countries’). Energy recovered from wastewater treatment plants (Section 5.2.4) is almost non-existent in the Arab region, even though the best-performing wastewater treatment plants can produce more energy than is needed for treatment (WERF, 2011). This is partially because most wastewater treatment plants in the Arab region are based on aerobic treatment systems that are commonly found in Europe, the USA and cooler climates. Anaerobic technologies for wastewater treatment are more suitable for the warmer Arab region and are more energy efficient because they do not require energy for aeration to maintain the dissolved oxygen levels needed for aerobic bacterial growth. In addition, anaerobic processes can produce biogas, which can fuel the treatment facility, and digested sludge cake, which can be processed into safe, high quality agricultural fertilizers.30 Investments in sanitation thus present opportunities for biogas production in some Arab countries, based on regional specificities (Box 16.3). 30 Aerobic wastewater treatment uses the biological processes of oxidizing and decomposing organic matter by microorganisms in the presence of oxygen. Anaerobic treatment is a bacterial process that is carried out in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic treatment is much more sensitive to low temperatures than is aerobic treatment. Anaerobic treatment processes are performed in temperatures ranging from 25°C to 35°C (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). This is important to consider when pursuing green investments or appropriate technology transfer arrangements in the warmer climates found in the Arab region. 12.2 Solar desalination in the Mashreq and Maghreb Solar energy investments are increasing in the Arab region for desalination and the creation of green industries. The King Abdul-Aziz City for Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia launched a national initiative for water desalination using nanotechnology to produce solar energy and water desalination membranes at low cost. The first phase of the initiative was achieved by building a solar energy-powered water desalination plant in Khafji with a production capacity of 30,000 m3 per day (KACST, 2012). Egypt constructed its first concentrating solar power system generating 140 MW solar power; another concentrating solar power project of 100 MW is in preparation (NREA, 2012). In the United Arab Emirates, a solar photovoltaic power plant was inaugurated in Masdar City in June 2009 and produces about 17,500 MWh of clean electricity annually. However, the site faces challenges in supplying the freshwater necessary to remove dust and sand that accumulates on the solar panels. Nevertheless, a 100 MW concentrated solar power project remains in preparation nearby; it will extend over an area of 2.5 km2 and have a solar field of 768 parabolic trough collectors to generate clean, renewable electricity (Masdar, n.d.). During the UNFCCC 18th Conference of the Parties (COP-18) held in Doha in December 2012, the Government of Qatar reaffirmed its goal to meet 80% of its freshwater needs through a 1,800 MW solar-powered water desalination plant. Solar and wind energy investments are also strongly promoted in Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. In Morocco, the current energy strategy plans a very quick development of the renewable energy sector and aims to satisfy 42% of the national energy needs though renewable energy production by 2020. Source: UNESCWA. WWDR 2014 THE ARAB REGION 93 BOxPDF Image | Water and Energy
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