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will reach as high as 50% by 2030 (Al-Hussayen, 2009). Similarly, in Kuwait electricity and desalinated water consumption have been on the rise – practically doubling every decade as a result of population growth and the rise in living standards. Projections show that in a business-as- usual scenario, the energy demand of desalination plants will be equal to the country’s 2011–2012 oil production (2.5 million barrels of oil per day) by the year 2035 (Darwish et al., 2009). Undoubtedly, these projections are alarming both from a sustainability point of view as well as in the light of environmental concerns such as greenhouse gas emissions and seawater pollution by discharged brines, a by-product of desalination (Abderrahman and Hussain, 2006). While the impact of discharges from thermal desalination plants has not been studied in depth at the regional level, given the enclosed nature of the Gulf, the GCC countries are increasingly concerned by the potential damage to the fragile marine ecosystem (Al-Jamal and Schiffler, 2009). In general, the information that is currently available indicates that there is a need for a comprehensive environmental evaluation of all major desalination projects at the global level (Lattemann and Höpner, 2003). From the sustainable development aspect of coastal areas, the integration of desalination activities into regional water resources management plans is an important consideration (UNEP-MAP/MED POL, 2003). Using solar energy as a vast renewable resource in the region is being considered as a way of decoupling expanding desalination projects’ dependence on hydrocarbon energy sources (Box 20.1). The use of other potential energy sources, such as biogas (methane) that has been recovered from wastewater treatment plants, is one of the viable solutions to reducing the environmental footprint of producing more energy to keep pace with rising demands for water provision and services. The GCC countries have recognized that good water management is just as important as technical solutions are in trying to ease water scarcity. In their thirty-first summit in 2010, the GCC heads of state issued the Abu Dhabi Declaration, which acknowledged the strong link between water and energy. The Declaration, among other matters, called for a comprehensive long-term strategy for water resources in the GCC countries that would take into account the interdependencies between water, energy and agriculture, the effects of climate change, and the environmental impact of desalination, emphasizing water demand management and conservation. The Declaration consisted of many recommendations on using water and energy efficiently, including the use of economic, technological, legislative and societal awareness tools. Most importantly, the Declaration linked water security with energy security and considered both as crucial strategic priorities for the future of the GCC countries. Conclusion Addressing water scarcity is considered a major challenge in the GCC countries, which are situated in one of the most water-stressed regions of the world. These countries have so far been able to alleviate the challenge by tapping fossil groundwater resources and using seawater desalination as a complementary source. However, an increase in the amount of water being used has led to the depletion of some aquifers and a deterioration of quality in others. This has made desalination necessary to meet various water demands, notably municipal uses. In 2005, desalinated water accounted for more than half of the drinking water supply in the GCC countries and 20.1 The King Abdullah Initiative for Solar Water Desalination In the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) region, there are a number of initiatives related to the water–energy nexus. Probably one of the most important on the supply side is the King Abdullah Initiative for Solar Water Desalination, which was launched in 2010. The initiative aims to use solar energy to desalinate seawater at a low cost to contribute to Saudi Arabia’s water security and the national economy (Al Saud, 2010). The implementation of the initiative will be done in three stages over nine years. The first phase, which will last three years, aims to build a desalination plant with a production capacity of 30,000 m3/day to meet the drinking water needs of the town of Al Khafji. The plant will use reverse osmosis technology and will be powered by solar energy farms that are currently being constructed. The second phase aims to build another solar desalination plant with a production capacity of 300,000 m3/day. The third phase would involve the construction of several solar plants for desalination in all parts of the country. The ultimate goal is to enable all seawater desalination in the country to be carried out using solely solar energy by 2019, and at a significantly lower cost of US$0.4/m3 compared to the current cost of between US$0.67/m3 and US$1.47/m3 when using thermal methods. The technology developed here would also be licensed outside Saudi Arabia (Sustainable Energy, 2010). 148 CHapTer 20 CASE STUDIES bOXPDF Image | Water and Energy
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