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2.2 Literature review 19 2.2.1 Applications Probably the first commercial ORC applications were designed for remote power stations (Bronicki, 1988) in the 1960s. These units were based on high speed turbogenerators having a power output of only a few kW (Bronicki, 1988). Following the small power stations, large-scale geothermal power plants using organic fluids were becoming more popular and commercially successful, and currently there are about 1000 MW installed geothermal power based on ORC technology or on a combination of ORC and steam pro- cess (Bronicki, 2008). In the recent years, the largest number of installed ORC power plants have been biomass power plants, having a power output in a range from 0.5 MW to 2.5 MW, and in Europe, over 100 biomass ORC power plants are currently operating (Bini et al., 2010). Combined heat and power (CHP) plants are common solutions in biomass ORC applications (Bini and Manciana, 1996). Based on the reviews on ORC technology carried out by Tchanche et al. (2011) and Schuster et al. (2009), biomass and geothermal power plants are the most commercially mature ORC applications. Other potential ORC applications can be found in the solar power (Tchanche et al., 2011) and waste heat recovery applications, such as the heat recovery of gas turbines (Invernizzi et al., 2007; Chacartegui et al., 2009) and reciprocating engines (Bombarda et al., 2010; Vaja and Gambrotta, 2010) as well as the waste heat recovery in the energy intensive oil and gas, steel, cement, and glass industry (Campana et al., 2013). The relevant literature related to the waste heat recovery of gas turbines and reciprocating engines will be dis- cussed in more detail later in this section. More novel applications implementing ORC technology can also be identified. Angelino and Invernizzi (1993) studied the possibility of using the ORC technology in space power cycles. Angelino and Colonna (2000a and 2000b) studied and discussed the use of ORCs in recovering the waste heat of molten carbonate fuel cells. Khristenko (1961) studied the possibility of using organic fluids as the working fluid in nuclear reactors. Another inter- esting idea, which has been studied more recently, is related to the ocean thermal energy conversion (Straatman and van Sark, 2008; Bombarda et al., 2013; Yang and Yeh, 2014). The system working principle is based on the utilization of the temperature gradient be- tween the ocean surface and bottom to produce electricity by means of a Rankine cycle. This type of power system can be identified as a source of clean energy, but on the other hand, the system represents a very low electric efficiency, due to the small temperature difference between the heat sink and the heat source (Tchanche et al., 2011). In addition, recently published research papers by Bracco et al. (2013) and Qui et al. (2012) show increasing interest towards the use of small-scale ORCs as domestic power units. The use of micro-scale Rankine cycles in utilizing the exhaust gas and the heat from the engine cooling system in automotive applications, such as heavy duty trucks, has been recently studied, and different technical solutions, working fluids, and cycle configurations have been suggested(Wang et al., 2011; Seher at al., 2012; Lang et al., 2013; Sprouse and De- pcik, 2013).PDF Image | WORKING FLUID SELECTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL-SCALE WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS BASED ON ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLES
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