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2.2 Literature review 21 small-scale ORC for an application recovering waste heat. The studied working fluids were R245fa, R123, n-butane, n-pentane, R1234yf, and Solkatherm. Their results showed that using different objective functions, mainly optimizing with respect to the economics or cycle thermodynamic efficiency, will lead to different optimal working conditions for the same fluid. They concluded that a thermodynamic optimization can give a good idea of the best working fluids for the application, but the thermodynamic optimization will not necessarily lead to the selection of the optimal working fluid in terms of economics. Madhava Hettiarachi et al. (2007) studied the use of ammonia, HCFC123, n-pentane, and PF5050 as potential working fluids for a geothermal application. They suggested a design criteria based on the ratio of heat transfer area needed in the process to the net power produced since they suggest that this ratio can be used as a suitable measure in evaluating the total power plant cost. Their results show that the selection of working fluid has a sig- nificant impact, not only on the power output but also on the power plant cost. Branchini et al. (2013) presented six ORC performance indexes that they suggested being benefi- cial when designing ORC systems. The presented performance indexes were namely the ORC cycle efficiency, ORC specific work, volumetric expansion ratio over the turbine, ORC working fluid to heat source fluid mass flow ratio, and recovery efficiency, as well as the heat exchanger surfaces of the ORC. They suggested that these indexes could be used in the design of ORC processes in terms of both the performance and economics. One interesting working fluid group can be identified as siloxanes. Fernandez et al. (2011) studied the use of siloxanes in high-temperature ORC applications. The analysis in- cluded saturated and superheated, subcritical, and supercritical cycles adopting linear and cyclic siloxanes as the working fluids. They concluded that the simple linear siloxanes MM (hexamethyldisiloxane, C6H18OSi2) and MDM (octamethyltrisiloxane, C8H24O2Si3) show high efficiencies and ensure the thermal stability of the working fluid in the saturated and regenerative cycles. They also concluded that the low condensing pressure, when us- ing siloxanes D5 (decamethylcyclopentasiloxane, C10H30O5Si5), D6 (dodecamethylcyclo- hexasiloxane, C12H36Si6O6), and MD2M (decamethyltetrasiloxane, C10H30O3Si4), makes these fluids more suitable in cycles having high condensing temperatures. In most of the biomass ORC processes, siloxane MDM is used as the working fluid (Drescher and Bru ̈ggeman, 2007). The use of siloxanes as working fluids have also been considered in several studies for different applications including space power cycles (Angelino and In- vernizzi, 1993), the heat recovery in molten carbonate fuel cells (Angelino and Colonna, 2000a; Angelino and Colonna, 2000b) and the exhaust gas heat recovery from micro-gas turbines (Invernizzi et al., 2007). Despite a large number of studies concerning the working fluid selection for ORC cycles, no single fluid can be identified as the most suitable one for all the ORC applications. The working fluid selection is highly dependent on the considered application, power scale, heat source temperature level, and the heat sink temperature level. The objective of the optimization can result in the selection of different optimal fluids depending on whether the fluid selection is based on maximizing the cycle power output, environmental considerations, or economics.PDF Image | WORKING FLUID SELECTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL-SCALE WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS BASED ON ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLES
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