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24 2 Organic Rankine Cycles They noticed that the thermodynamic efficiency of the ORC increased as the molecular complexity of the working fluid increased, but on the other hand, the higher molecular complexity led to higher exhaust gas outlet temperatures, and thus, a lower amount of heat could be extracted from the heat source. Therefore, it was recommended to use working fluids with a rather low molecular complexity. Invernizzi et al. (2007) also discussed the preliminary design of an ORC turbine for the heat recovery application. The designed turbine was a 40 kW two-stage axial turbine, and hexamethyldisiloxane (MM) was used as the working fluid. It was also roughly estimated in their study that by adding the ORC as a bottoming cycle, the specific cost of the system increased from 1200 C/kW to 1600 - 1800 C/kW when the specific cost of the ORC was estimated to be in the range from 2500 C/kW to 3000 C/kW. 2.2.4 Studies on micro-scale ORC power cycles The interest towards small-scale ORC systems has been increasing in the recent years. Wang et al. (2011) carried out a study on a 10 kW ORC system having a screw expander and designed for a waste heat recovery application. They considered eight different fluo- rocarbons and butane as potential working fluid candidates. Based on their study, R245fa and R245ca were considered as the most suitable working fluids for the studied systems, if in addition to the cycle performance, safety aspects as well as environmental issues are considered. They estimated the ORC system cost based on existing air conditioning systems and relevant engine components of a passenger car and concluded that a specific price of less than 100C/kW can be achieved in a case of mass production and a simple cycle configuration. Leibowitz et al. (2006) discussed the use of screw expanders in small scale ORCs having a power output in the range from 20 kW to 50 kW. They suggested that the use of screw expanders can bring certain benefits when compared to small scale turbines, such as lower rotational speed, the availability of directly coupling the expander into a generator, as well as a higher efficiency in small scale applications. They also con- cluded that the specific price of the commercial system would be in the range from 1500 $/kW to 2000 $/kW. Kang (2012) carried out an experimental study on an ORC having a high speed radial turbine and high speed generator coupled directly into one shaft without a gear box and having a rotational speed of 63 000 rpm. The system used refrigerant R245fa as working fluid, and the evaporation temperature of the working fluid was in the range from 70 oC to 90 oC. The measured power output of the system was 32.7 kW, and the achieved tur- bine efficiency of 78.7 % was rather high for a small-scale ORC system. More recently, Borsukiewicz-Gozdur (2013) and Klonowicz et al. (2014) carried out an experimental study on a small-scale ORC system using refrigerant R227ea as the working fluid, and the system utilized low-temperature district heating water as a heat source. The system included a hermetic turbogenerator having a power output of 9 kW-10 kW and the de- signed turbine was a partial admission axial turbine. Based on the measurements, the electric efficiency of the turbogenerator of less than 60 % was achieved including the losses in the turbine and in the generator.PDF Image | WORKING FLUID SELECTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL-SCALE WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS BASED ON ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLES
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