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2.2 Literature review 25 Qiu et al. (2012) carried out an experimental study aiming at designing a domestic- scale ORC process using biomass as a heat source and producing both thermal power and electricity. They used HFE7000 and HFE7100 as working fluids in the experimental setup and the process expander was modified from a vane type compressor. The system produced 900 W electric power and 47 kW of thermal power showing a CHP efficiency of 78.7 %. The main reasons for the low electric power output were the low efficiency of the expander, alternator, and boiler, and the large losses in the other process components. More recently, Brocco et. al (2013) carried out an experimental study on a small-scale ORC for domestic power production. The working fluid was R245fa, and the system had a scroll expander, which was derived from a commercial compressor, and an electric boiler was used instead of an external heat source to evaporate the liquid. The system reached a global electric efficiency of 8 % despite the fact that most of the process components were not optimized. 2.2.5 Special features of ORC turbines In this study, ORC processes adopting turbines are mainly considered. The low enthalpy drop over the turbine and a large volumetric flow rate at the turbine outlet enable the use of turbines with relatively simple geometries when compared to conventional steam tur- bines (Macchi, 1977; Verneau, 1987; Larjola, 1995). Another advantage is that the most of the organic fluids remain at superheated state along the expansion, and therefore, there is no risk of liquid drops damaging the turbine (Liu et al., 2004). The turbines used in the existing ORC power systems are typically axial turbines (Jokinen et al., 1998; Colonna et al., 2006a) or radial inflow turbines (Larjola, 1995; van Buijtenen et al., 2003; Kang, 2012). Studies on the possibility of using multistage radial outflow turbines have been carried out recently, for example by Pini et al. (2013) since the multistage radial outflow arrangement allows to have lower rotational speeds when compared to the conventional axial and radial inflow flow arrangements. Another advantage related to the use of radial outflow arrangement is that the flow remains subsonic if a large number of turbine stages are adopted and large pressure ratios over the turbine can be achieved (Pini et al., 2013). Macchi and Perdichizzi (1981) carried out a study on the design principles of axial tur- bine stage when nonconventional working fluids are adopted. They proposed that the efficiency of the turbine stage can be predicted based on three parameters, namely the ratio of volumetric flow rate at the inlet and outlet of the turbine, which takes into account the compressibility effects, the relation between the volumetric flow at the turbine outlet √ 1/4 and isentropic enthalpy change in the turbine, qv,out/∆hs , which takes into account the actual turbine dimensions, and the turbine specific speed Ns. Their results indicated that the effects of compressibility become very important for stages having a high pressure ratio and the stage efficiencies are low when adopting high pressure ratios. The turbine volumetric flow rate ratio between the outlet and inlet of the turbine can vary largely, depending on the selected fluid and the temperature level. According to Macchi (1977), values for volumetric flow rate ratio as low as five can be found in low-temperature ORCPDF Image | WORKING FLUID SELECTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL-SCALE WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS BASED ON ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLES
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