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68 5 Siloxanes as working fluids in mini ORC systems Table 5.1: Diesel engine and exhaust gas parameters. Psp [kW] 120 qm,hs [kg/s] 0.227 Ths,in [◦ C] 431 Ths,out [◦ C] 210 φev Tad [kW] [◦ C] 55.4 180 Table 5.2: Component efficiencies and process specifications. ηmg ηinv ηfp ct,out Cd 80 92 96.5 50 60 3.2 Tc , Case1/Case2 [◦C] 50/90 Tt,max ∆Tsh εmax [◦C] [◦C] [-] 325 20 0.68 ηt [%] [%] [%] [%] [m/s] [-] The cycle calculations were carried out by constraining the working fluid maximum tem- perature at the turbine inlet with Tt,max ≤ 325 ◦C, well below the fluids’ thermal stability threshold (Colonna, 1991; Angelino and Invernizzi, 1993; Angelino and Colonna, 1998). The selected maximum temperature at the turbine inlet allows for the optimal coupling of the thermodynamic cycle and the heat source. Another constraint adopted in the calcu- lations is that the temperature difference between the heat source fluid and the working fluid within the evaporator is not smaller than 20 ◦C. In most of the considered cases, the minimum temperature difference between the heat source and the working fluid occurs at the cold end of the evaporator. Here, the evaporator is assumed to feature countercur- rent flow arrangement, and therefore, the cold end of the heat exchanger refers to the heat source fluid outlet and working fluid inlet. A small degree of superheating (∆Tsh = 20 ◦C) is also specified as a safety margin to prevent liquid droplets from entering the turbine. An example of an evaporator temperature–transferred thermal power diagram is shown in Figure 5.1. The thermodynamic cycle calculations are performed with the two condensing tempera- tures of Tc = 50 ◦C (Case1) and Tc = 90 ◦C (Case2). The ORC system is considered as a power-only application in Case1, and as a combined heat and power (CHP) application in Case2. A recuperator is employed to preheat the liquid working fluid entering the evap- orator. The working fluid temperature at the recuperator outlet is calculated based on the turbine outlet temperature, feed-pump outlet temperature, and recuperator effectiveness. In this study, the maximum value of the recuperator effectiveness is limited to εmax ≤ 0.68, which enables the use of a recuperator, where the flow arrangement can also differ from the pure countercurrent flow configuration. However, lower recuperator effective- ness is specified in case of some of the working fluids considered here if the temperature difference at the evaporator cold end, between the heat source and working fluid, does not allow to obtain the maximum recuperator effectiveness. By varying the recuperator effec- tiveness, the heat rate to the ORC evaporator can be kept the same for each fluid. It would also be possible to set the maximum recuperator effectiveness for each fluid and vary the outlet temperature of the heat source. This approach would lead to slightly differentPDF Image | WORKING FLUID SELECTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL-SCALE WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS BASED ON ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLES
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