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58. On a positive note, geothermal operations generally do not have a large footprint and a typical geothermal plant of 50 MW is no greater than 6 hectares. This precludes the potential large-scale transformations of habitat; however site specific environmental assessment will consider not only the power plant but also the broader well field(s), associated infrastructure, induced development, and construction impacts to determine appropriate measures to conserve biodiversity. 59. Tourism. Tourism linked to important biodiversity sites is also a major factor in economies of Central America, especially in the case of Costa Rica, because of the economy’s reliance on eco-tourism. In this regard the biodiversity, in addition to its intrinsic value, has broader economic and social value that must be considered in a complementary way to the conservation aspects when considering geothermal sites for development. That said, there have been cases of geothermal energy sites themselves being established as tourism destinations in New Zealand, Iceland, and Italy among others providing associated investment opportunities in this sector as well. 60. Hydrogeology, Land Subsidence, and Seismicity. Hydrogeology is linked to surface aquatic ecosystems and the land itself. Groundwater may be found in confined or open systems underground. The flow of these waters is determined by many factors, particularly physical ones related to the soil and rock. Mismanagement of groundwater resources can have impacts in the vertical direction (for example; contamination of a freshwater aquifer by a salty one from below, or thermal changes from reinjection of different temperature water) and in a horizontal direction (contamination of a shallow aquifer by geothermal fluids could carry toxic substances to drinking water systems at some distance from the well site). 61. Modern geothermal systems generally re-inject water into the original aquifer to maintain the pressure and flow necessary to sustain operations over the long term. Lack of consideration for the resilience and sustainability of the groundwater resource has decreased the power potential in older projects where reinjection was not utilized. This occurred in the case of Momotombo in Nicaragua which was based on a shallow source which was depleted in a relatively short time.45 46 Thermal gradients must also be considered given that changes in temperature from reinjection of cooled waters can affect heat and energy production if not properly designed and managed. In-depth studies of hydrogeology should be prepared prior to the development of the well systems for a geothermal plant to consider optimal conditions for extraction and reinjection of water. 62. Subsidence may be another effect of geothermal projects. The phenomenon occurs when land settles due to changes in the sub-surface conditions. In the case of geothermal energy production, the extraction of water without reinjection into the aquifer can lead to a drop in the reservoir pore pressure and loss of support to the rock above the area of extraction.47 The extent of subsidence may be difficult to assess in areas of tectonic activity where subsidence may naturally occur. Most projects monitor subsidence through different mechanisms including modern GPS satellite systems to measure minute changes in surface. 45 UNFCCC. 2004. Proyecto Geotérmico San Jacinto-Tizate en Nicaragua. PDD. 46 JBIC, 2005. Pilot Studies For Project Formation For Environmental Protecting Infrastructure For Economic Growth Utilizing Renewable Energy In The Plan Puebla-Panama Plan Region 47 Ibid. Kagel 2007. 81PDF Image | Drilling Down on Geothermal Potential Central America
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