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Chapter 4 Geothermal Energy Table 4.3 | Geothermal technical potentials on continents for the International Energy Agency (IEA) regions (prepared with data from EPRI (1978) and global technical potentials described in section 4.2.1). OECD North America Latin America OECD Europe Africa 44.5 REGION* Electric technical potential in EJ/yr at depths to: 5 km Technical potentials (EJ/yr) for direct uses 3 km 10 km Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper 25.6 31.8 38.0 91.9 69.3 241.9 2.1 15.5 19.3 23.0 55.7 42.0 146.5 1.3 6.0 7.5 8.9 21.6 16.3 56.8 0.5 16.8 20.8 24.8 60.0 45.3 158.0 1.4 19.5 24.3 29.0 70.0 52.8 184.4 1.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 13.4 10.1 35.2 0.3 22.9 28.5 34.2 82.4 62.1 216.9 1.8 7.3 9.1 10.8 26.2 19.7 68.9 0.6 Total 117.5 145.9 174.3 421.0 317.5 1108.6 9.5 312.2 Transition Economies Middle East Developing Asia OECD Pacific Note: *For regional definitions and country groupings see Annex II. remaining brine is sent back to the reservoir through injection wells or first cascaded to a direct-use system before injecting. A few reservoirs, such as The Geysers in the USA, Larderello in Italy, Matsukawa in Japan, and some Indonesian fields, produce vapour as ‘dry’ steam (i.e., pure steam, with no liquid water) that can be sent directly to the turbine. In these cases, control of steam flow to meet power demand fluctuations is easier than in the case of two-phase production, where continuous up-flow in the well bore is required to avoid gravity collapse of the liquid phase. Hot water produced from intermediate-temperature hydrother- mal or EGS reservoirs is commonly utilized by extracting heat through a heat exchanger for generating power in a binary cycle, or in direct use applications. Recovered fluids are also injected back into the reservoir (Armstead and Tester, 1987; Dickson and Fanelli, 2003; DiPippo, 2008). Key technologies for exploration and drilling, reservoir management and stimulation, and energy recovery and conversion are described below. 4.3.1 Exploration and drilling Since geothermal resources are underground, exploration methods (including geological, geochemical and geophysical surveys) have been developed to locate and assess them. The objectives of geothermal exploration are to identify and rank prospective geothermal reservoirs prior to drilling, and to provide methods of characterizing reservoirs (including the properties of the fluids) that enable estimates of geo- thermal reservoir performance and lifetime. Exploration of a prospective geothermal reservoir involves estimating its location, lateral extent and depth with geophysical methods and then drilling exploration wells to test its properties, minimizing the risk. All these exploration methods can be improved (see Section 4.6.1). Today, geothermal wells are drilled over a range of depths down to 5 km using methods similar to those used for oil and gas. Advances in drill- ing technology have enabled high-temperature operation and provide directional drilling capability. Typically, wells are deviated from vertical 68.1 41.3 16.0 51.9 9.9 61.0 19.4 to about 30 to 50° inclination from a ‘kick-off point’ at depths between 200 and 2,000 m. Several wells can be drilled from the same pad, head- ing in different directions to access larger resource volumes, targeting permeable structures and minimizing the surface impact. Current geo- thermal drilling methods are presented in more detail in Chapter 6 of Tester et al. (2006). For other geothermal applications such as GHP and direct uses, smaller and more flexible rigs have been developed to over- come accessibility limitations. 4.3.2 Reservoir engineering Reservoir engineering efforts are focused on two main goals: (a) to determine the volume of geothermal resource and the optimal plant size based on a number of conditions such as sustainable use of the available resource; and (b) to ensure safe and efficient operation during the lifetime of the project. The modern method of estimating reserves and sizing power plants is to apply reservoir simulation technology. First a conceptual model is built, using available data, and is then translated into a numerical representation, and calibrated to the unexploited, ini- tial thermodynamic state of the reservoir (Grant et al., 1982). Future behaviour is forecast under selected load conditions using a heat and mass transfer algorithm (e.g., TOUGH2)5, and the optimum plant size is selected. Injection management is an important aspect of geothermal devel- opment, where the use of isotopic and chemical tracers is common. Cooling of production zones by injected water that has had insufficient contact with hot reservoir rock can result in production declines. In some circumstances, placement of wells could also aim to enhance deep hot recharge through production pressure drawdown, while suppressing shallow inflows of peripheral cool water through injection pressure increases. 5 More information is available on the TOUGH2 website: esd.lbl.gov/TOUGH2/. 411PDF Image | Geothermal Energy 4
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