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Geothermal Energy Chapter 4 such as Iceland and New Zealand doubled the installed capacity from 2005 to 2009 (IEA-GIA, 2009). Moreover, attention is turning to new markets such as Chile, Germany and Australia. The majority of existing geothermal assets are operated by state-owned utilities or independent power producers. Currently, more than 30 companies globally have an ownership stake in at least one geother- mal field. Altogether, the top 20 owners of geothermal capacity control approximately 90% of the installed global market (Bertani, 2010). At the end of 2008, geothermal electricity contributed only about 0.3% of the total worldwide electric generation. However, 6 of the 24 coun- tries shown in Figure 4.5 (El Salvador, Kenya, Philippines, Iceland, Costa Rica and New Zealand) obtained more than 10% of their national elec- tricity production from high-temperature geothermal resources (Bromley et al., 2010). Worldwide evolution of geothermal power and geothermal direct uses during the last 40 years is presented in Table 4.4, including the annual average rate of growth over each period. The average annual growth of geothermal-electric installed capacity over the last 40 years is 7%, and for geothermal direct uses (heat applications) is 11% over the last 35 years. Table 4.4 | Average annual growth rate in geothermal power capacity and direct uses (including GHP) in the last 40 years (prepared with data from Lund et al., 2005, 2010a; Fridleifsson and Ragnarsson, 2007; Gawell and Greenberg, 2007; Bertani, 2010). million and government grants of USD2005 146 million (Goldstein et al., 2009). In France, the EU project ‘EGS Pilot Plant’ at Soultz-sous-Forêts started in 1987 and has recently commissioned the first power plant (1.5 MWe) to utilize the enhanced fracture permeability at 200°C. In Landau, Germany, a 2.5 to 2.9 MWe EGS plant went into operation in late 2007 (Hettkamp et al., 2010). Deep sedimentary aquifers are being tapped at the geothermal test site in Groß Schönebeck, Germany, using two research wells (Huenges et al., 2009). These demonstration prototypes have provided data on the performance of the EGS concepts subject to real field conditions. Nonetheless, sustained multiyear commitments to field-scale demonstrations in different geologic settings are still needed to reduce technical and economic risks. The USA has recently increased support for EGS research, development and demonstration as part of a revived national geothermal program. Currently the main short-term goals for the US program are to dem- onstrate commercial viability of EGS and upscale to several tens of megawatts (Holm et al., 2010). A US commitment to multiyear EGS dem- onstrations covering a range of resource grades is less certain. The availability of water, other lower-cost renewable resources, trans- mission and distribution infrastructure, and most importantly project financing, will play major roles in regional growth trends of EGS projects (Tester et al., 2006). 4.4.3 Status of direct uses of geothermal resources The world installed capacity of direct-use geothermal energy in 2009 was estimated at 50.6 GWth (Table 4.4), with a total thermal energy usage of about 121.7 TWhth/yr (0.44 EJ/yr) in 2008, distributed in 78 countries, with an annual average CF of 27.5% (Lund et al., 2010a). Another source (REN21, 2010) estimates geothermal direct use at 60 GWth as of the end of 2009. Direct heat supply temperatures are typically close to actual process temperatures in district heating systems that range from approximately 60°C to 120°C. In 2009 the main types (and relative percentages) of direct applications in annual energy use were: space heating of build- ings9 (63%), bathing and balneology (25%), horticulture (greenhouses and soil heating) (5%), industrial process heat and agricultural drying (3%), aquaculture (fish farming) (3%) and snow melting (1%) (Lund et al., 2010a). When the resource temperature is too low for other direct uses, it is pos- sible to use GHP. GHP contributed 70% (35.2 GWth) of the worldwide installed geothermal heating capacity in 2009, and has been the fastest growing form of all geothermal direct use since 1995 (Rybach, 2005; Lund et al., 2010a). 9 China is the world’s largest user of geothermal heat for space heating (Lund et al., 2010a). Year Electric capacity Direct uses capacity MWe % MWth % 720 — N/A 1,180 10.4 1,300 2,110 12.3 1,950 4,764 17.7 7,072 5,834 4.1 8,064 6,833 3.2 8,664 7,972 3.1 15,200 8,933 2.3 27,825 10,715 3.7 50,583 Total annual average: 7.0 11.0 1970 — 1975 — 1980 8.5 1985 29.4 1990 2.7 1995 1.4 2000 11.9 2005 12.9 2010* 12.7 Notes: %: Average annual growth in percent over the period. N/A: Reliable data not available. *End of 2009. 4.4.2 Status of EGS While there are no commercial-scale operating EGS plants, a number of demonstrations are active in Europe, the USA and Australia. In the latter, by 2009, 50 companies held about 400 geothermal exploration licences to develop EGS (AL-AGEA, 2009) with investments of USD2005 260 416PDF Image | Geothermal Energy 4
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