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Geothermal Energy Chapter 4 Such practices are typically mandated by environmental regulations. Geochemical monitoring is commonly undertaken by the field operators to investigate, and if necessary mitigate, such adverse effects (Bromley et al., 2006). 4.5.3.2 Potential hazards of seismicity and other phenomena Local hazards arising from natural phenomena, such as micro-earth- quakes, hydrothermal steam eruptions and ground subsidence may be influenced by the operation of a geothermal field (see also Section 9.3.4.7). As with other (non-geothermal) deep drilling projects, pressure or temperature changes induced by stimulation, production or injection of fluids can lead to geo-mechanical stress changes and these can affect the subsequent rate of occurrence of these phenomena (Majer et al., 2008). A geological risk assessment may help to avoid or mitigate these hazards. Routine seismic monitoring is used as a diagnostic tool and management and protocols have been prepared to measure, monitor and manage sys- tems proactively, as well as to inform the public of any hazards (Majer et al., 2008). In the future, discrete-element models would be able to predict the spatial location of energy releases due to injection and withdrawal of underground fluids. During 100 years of development, although turbines have been tripped offline for short periods, no build- ings or structures within a geothermal operation or local community have been significantly damaged by shallow earthquakes originating from geothermal production or injection activities. With respect to induced seismicity, ground vibrations or noise have been a social issue associated with some EGS demonstration projects, particu- larly in populated areas of Europe. The process of high-pressure injection of cold water into hot rock generates small seismic events. Induced seismic events have not been large enough to lead to human injury or significant property damage, but proper management of this issue will be an important step to facilitating significant expansion of future EGS projects. Collaborative research initiated by the IEA-GIA (Bromley and Mongillo, 2008), the USA and Australia (International Partnership for Geothermal Technology: IPGT)12 and in Europe (GEISER)13, is aimed at better understanding and mitigating induced seismicity hazards, and providing risk management protocols. Hydrothermal steam eruptions have been triggered at a few locations by shallow geothermal pressure changes (both increases and decreases). These risks can be mitigated by prudent field design and operation. Land subsidence has been an issue at a few high-temperature geother- mal fields where pressure decline has affected some highly compressible 12 A description of the project IPGT is available at: internationalgeothermal.org/IPGT. html. 13 A description of the GEISER project is available at: www.gfz-potsdam.de. formations causing them to compact anomalously and form local subsid- ence ‘bowls’. Management by targeted injection to maintain pressures at crucial depths and locations can minimize subsidence effects. Some minor subsidence may also be related to thermal contraction and minor tumescence (inflation) can overlie areas of injection and rising pressure. 4.5.3.3 Land use Good examples exist of unobtrusive, scenically landscaped devel- opments (e.g., Matsukawa, Japan), and integrated tourism/energy developments (e.g., Wairakei, New Zealand and Blue Lagoon, Iceland). Nonetheless, land use issues still seriously constrain new development options in some countries (e.g., Indonesia, Japan, the USA and New Zealand) where new projects are often located within or adjacent to national parks or tourist areas. Spa resort owners are very sensitive to the possibility of depleted hot water resources. Potential pressure and temperature interference between adjacent geothermal developers or users can be another issue that affects all types of heat and fluid extraction, including heat pumps and EGS power projects (Bromley et al., 2006). Good planning should take this into account by applying pre- dictive simulation models when allocating permits for energy extraction. Table 4.5 presents the typical operational footprint for conventional geothermal power plants, taking into account surface installations (drill- ing pads, roads, pipelines, fluid separators and power-stations). Due to directional drilling techniques, and appropriate design of pipeline cor- ridors, the land area above geothermal resources that is not covered by surface installations can still be used for other purposes such as farming, horticulture and forestry, as occurs, for example, at Mokai and Rotokawa in New Zealand (Koorey and Fernando, 2010), and a national park at Olkaria, Kenya. Table 4.5 | Land requirements for typical geothermal power generation options ex- pressed in terms of square meter per generation capacity and per annual energy output. 110-MWe geothermal flash plants (excluding wells) 160 56-MWe geothermal flash plant (including wells, pipes, etc.) 900 49-MWe geothermal FC-RC plant (excluding wells) 290 20-MWe geothermal binary plant (excluding wells) 170 Notes: FC: Flash cycle. RC: Rankine cycle (data from Tester et al. (2006) taken from DiPippo (1991); the CFs originally used to calculate land use vary between 90 and 95% depending on the plant type). 4.5.4 Local social impacts The successful realization of geothermal projects often depends on the level of acceptance by local people. Prevention or minimization of det- rimental impacts on the environment, and on land occupiers, as well as Type of power plant m2/MWe m2/GWh/yr 1,260 7,460 2,290 1,415 420 Land UsePDF Image | Geothermal Energy 4
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