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Chapter 4 Geothermal Energy the creation of benefits for local communities, is indispensable to obtain social acceptance. Public education and awareness of the probability and severity of detrimental impacts are also important. The necessary prerequisites to secure agreement of local people are: (a) prevention of adverse effects on people’s health; (b) minimization of environmental impacts; and (c) creation of direct and ongoing benefits for the resident communities (Rybach, 2010). Geothermal development creates local job opportunities during the exploration, drilling and construction period (typically four years minimum for a greenfield project). It also creates permanent and full-time jobs when the power plant starts to oper- ate (Kagel, 2006) since the geothermal field from which the fluids are extracted must be operated locally. This can alleviate rural poverty in developing countries, particularly in Asia, Central and South America, and Africa, where geothermal resources are often located in remote mountainous areas. Some geothermal companies and government agencies have approached social issues by improving local security, building roads, schools, medical facilities and other community assets, which may be funded by contributions from profits obtained from oper- ating the power plant (De Jesus, 2005). Multiple land use arrangements that promote employment by inte- grating subsurface geothermal energy extraction with labour-intensive agricultural activities are also useful. In many developing countries, geothermal energy is also an appropriate energy source for small-scale distributed generation, helping accelerate development through access to energy in remote areas. This has occurred, for example, in Maguarichi, Mexico (Sánchez-Velasco et al., 2003). 4.6 Prospects for technology improvement, innovation and integration14 Geothermal resources can be integrated into all types of electrical power supply systems, from large, interconnected continental trans- mission grids to onsite use in small, isolated villages or autonomous buildings. They can be utilized in a variety of sustainable power generat- ing modes, including continuous low power rates, long-term (decades long) cycles of high power rates separated by recovery periods and long-term, uninterrupted high power rates sustained with effective fluid reinjection (Bromley et al., 2006). Since geothermal typically provides base-load electric generation, integration of new power plants into existing power systems does not present a major challenge. Indeed, in some configurations, geothermal energy can provide valuable flexibility, such as the ability to increase or decrease production or start up/shut down as required. In some cases, however, the location dependence of geothermal resources requires new transmission infrastructure invest- ments in order to deliver geothermal electricity to load centres. 14 Chapter 10.5 offers a complementary perspective on drivers of and trends in technological progress across RE technologies. Chapter 8 deals with other integration issues more widely. For geothermal direct uses, no integration problems have been observed. For heating and cooling, geothermal (including GHP) is already wide- spread at the domestic, community and district scales. District heating networks usually offer flexibility with regard to the primary energy source and can therefore use low-temperature geothermal resources or cascaded geothermal heat (Lund et al., 2010b). For technology improvement and innovation, several prospects can reduce the cost of producing geothermal energy and lead to higher energy recovery, longer field lifetimes, and better reliability. With time, better technical solutions are expected to improve power plant perfor- mance and reduce maintenance down time. The main technological challenges and prospects are described below. 4.6.1 Improvements in exploration, drilling and assessment technologies In exploration, R&D is required to locate hidden geothermal systems (i.e., with no surface manifestations such as hot springs and fumaroles) and for EGS prospects. Refinement and wider usage of rapid reconnais- sance geothermal tools such as satellite-based hyper-spectral, thermal infrared, high-resolution panchromatic and radar sensors could make exploration efforts more effective. Once a regional focus area has been selected, availability of improved cost-effective reconnaissance survey tools to detect as many geothermal indicators as possible is critical in providing rapid coverage of the geological environment being explored at an appropriate resolution. Special research is needed to improve the rate of penetration when drilling hard rock and to develop advanced slim-hole technologies, and also in large-diameter drilling through ductile, creeping or swell- ing formations. Drilling must minimize formation damage that occurs as a result of a complex interaction of the drilling fluid (chemical, filtrate and particulate) with the reservoir fluid and formation. The objectives of new-generation geothermal drilling and well construction technologies are to reduce the cost and increase the useful life of geothermal produc- tion facilities through an integrated effort (see Table 4.6). Improvements and innovations in deep drilling are expected as a result of the international Iceland Deep Drilling Project. The aim of this proj- ect is to penetrate into supercritical geothermal fluids, which can be a potential source of high-grade geothermal energy. The concept behind it is to flow supercritical fluid to the surface in such a way that it changes directly to superheated (>450°C) hot steam at sub-critical pressures. This would provide up to ten-fold energy output of approximately 50 MWe as compared to average high enthalpy geothermal wells (Fridleifsson et al., 2010). All tasks related to the engineering of the reservoir require a more sophisticated modelling of the reservoir processes and interactions to be 421PDF Image | Geothermal Energy 4
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