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Other visual impacts are only of concern on a temporary basis, such as construction equipment. Construction vehicles, drill rigs, and other heavy equipment would have a negative impact on the visual quality of the area for a limited amount of time. Subsidence Subsidence is most commonly thought of as the slow, downward sinking of the land surface. Other types of ground deformation include upward motion (inflation) and horizontal movements. In some cases, subsidence can damage facilities such as roads, buildings and irrigation systems, or even cause tracts of land to become submerged by nearby bodies of water. Although it can occur naturally, subsidence can also occur as a result of the extraction of subsurface fluids, including groundwater, hydrocarbons, and geothermal fluids. In these cases, a reduction in reservoir pore pressure reduces the support for the reservoir rock itself and for the rock overlying the reservoir, potentially leading to a slow, downward deformation of the land surface. In most areas where subsidence has been attributed to geothermal operations, the region of Earth deformation has been confined to the wellfield area itself, and has not disturbed anything off-site. While subsidence can be induced by thermal contraction of the reservoir due to extraction and natural recharge, properly placed injection (see injection sections) reduces the potential for subsidence by maintaining reservoir pressures. At fields produced from sedimentary rocks where the porosity and permeability is primarily between rock grains, injection can successfully mitigate for subsidence. At the Heber geothermal field in southern California, for example, injection successfully resolved subsidence.119 At The Geysers, where subsidence may be caused more by temperature decline (thermoelastic contraction) than pressure decline (poroelastic contraction), injection is not necessarily an effective mitigation tool for subsidence. However, long-term monitoring at The Geysers demonstrates a very slow rate of subsidence that has no direct environmental impact. Naturally-occurring subsidence most frequently takes place in areas that are tectonically active such as volcanic regions and fault zones. Subsidence can also typically occur in areas where sedimentary basins are filled with unconsolidated sands, silts, clays and gravels.120 Most known geothermal resources are located in areas that are tectonically active, and may experience natural subsidence. For example, subsidence occurs naturally in the Medicine Lake geothermal area of California due to volcanic activity, even though no geothermal development has yet taken place in the region. Because geothermal operations occur at tectonically active sites, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between induced and naturally occurring subsidence. Subsidence related to geothermal development is more likely in areas where the geothermal reservoir occurs in weak, porous sedimentary or pyroclastic formations.121 119 Geothermal Hot Line (Jan. 1996). Subsidence and Uplift at Heber Geothermal Field, California. 120 Telephone Flat Environmental Impact Statement, 3.1-6. 121 Fourmile Hill Environmental Impact Statement, 4-7. 52PDF Image | Guide to Geothermal Energy and the Environment Geothermal plants
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