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Also, when the irradiance of the PVG is controlled from 200 W/m2 to 1000 W/m2 and the hot-side temperature of the TEG is fixed at 250 1C, the power improvement as much as 4.8% to 17.9% can be achieved. As a result the potential use of the system opens up many possibilities for engine efficiency. 3. Six-stroke internal combustion engine cycle The concept of a six-stroke internal combustion engine cycle is fundamentally based on the basic four-stroke engine cycle but with two added cycles to produce higher efficiency and reduce emissions. There are many patents having been awarded for designs on six-stroke cycle engine which are discussed in Refs. [41–48]. However, very limited articles on the subject of six- stroke combustion engine cycle performances have been pub- lished. Hayasaki et al. [49] proposed a six-stroke direct injection (DI) dual fuel diesel engine that has second compression and combustion processes as opposed to the typical four-stroke diesel engine. They used diesel–methanol fuel which reduces nitric oxide (NO) and soot emissions to almost zero especially for soot emission. Furthermore, a slightly lower indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) of the six-stroke diesel engine than that of the four-stroke engine was achieved. Hence, based on these papers, it can be concluded that a six-stroke cycle engine has better thermal performance and low fuel consumption potentials. A typical four-stroke cycle involves (1) intake stroke, (2) com- pression stroke, (3) combustion stroke and (4) exhaust stroke. However, in a six-stroke internal combustion engine proposed by Conklin and Szybist [21], the expanded exhaust gas from the fourth stroke is trapped and recompressed by two additional strokes. Theoretically, with the addition of a couple of power strokes, more output work can be produced without any extra fuel injected into the cylinder, thus improving fuel economy of the engine. Consequently, water is injected and the steam/ exhaust mixture is expanded. By closing the exhaust valve earlier than usual, the residual gas inside the cylinder will be trapped. The injected liquid water will receive energy from the recom- pressed gases which causes it to expand and hence increasing the pressure inside the cylinder. Hence, more work is produced through the expansion process. However, all the multi-stroke engine cycles explained in Refs. [42–46,48] employ a complete exhaust stroke during crank angle 540–7201 which produces impingement on the combustion chamber surfaces when water is injected into the cylinder. Conklin and Szybist [21] believe that an engine cycle that utilizes water injection to absorb the heat directly from the exhaust gas is more practical than using the combustion chamber surfaces as the primary heat source. By employing an ideal thermodynamics model of the additional two strokes i.e., exhaust gas recompression, water injection and expansion, Conklin and Szybist [21] found out that the net mean effective pressure of the steam expansion stroke (MEPstream) can be maximized by modifying the exhaust valve closing timing during the fourth stroke. As a result, the range of calculated MEPstream was found out to be 0.75–2.5bars which show a potential increase in engine efficiency and fuel consumption as the combustion mean effective pressures (MEPcombustion) of gaso- line powered IC engine are typically up to 10 bars [21]. 4. Rankine bottoming cycle technique The low-grade temperature heat from the exhaust cannot be efficiently converted to electrical power by using conventional methods as seen in industrial waste heat recovery systems. In this section, a study on converting these low-grade temperature heat sources using Rankine cycle is discussed. There are many other thermodynamic cycles proposed to generate electricity from exhaust heat. These are Kalina, supercritical Rankine, organic Rankine, trilateral flash and Goswami cycles. Interestingly, Kalina and organic Rankine cycles have been compared in many studies in the past few years. DiPippo [50] reported that even though there have been claims of up to 50% of more power output for the same input for Kalina cycles as opposed to organic Rankine cycles, data from actual operations only show a difference of about 3% in favor of Kalina cycle as compared to organic Rankine cycle under similar conditions. Vaja and Gambarotta [51] mentioned that a 12% increase in the overall efficiency with respect to the engine with no bottoming. They added Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) can recover only a small fraction of the released heat by the engine trough the cooling water. 4.1. Background of the technique Rankine bottoming cycle is a derivative of the Rankine cycle. Because of the low-grade heat sources, the efficiency of the cycle depends on the selected working fluids and operating conditions of the system. Chen et al. [52] reviewed 35 different types of working fluid under different operating conditions. It may be noted that the best working fluids with the highest efficiency cycles may not be the same for other operating conditions and different working fluids. Fig. 6 shows a configuration of a Rankine cycle system and its processes plotted in a T-s diagram. AWHR Rankine bottoming cycle system consists of a wet, dry or isentropic fluid as the working fluid, a pump to circulate the working fluid (increase in pressure), an evaporator/boiler to R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5649–5659 5653 Fig. 6. Rankine cycle system [53].PDF Image | Heat Condensing Operating Parameters ElectraTherm
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