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engines can be deduced. In the lower left-hand side of the figure, cost-effective engines or Base Engines utilized conventional technologies for example port fuel injection, one or none inlet cam phaser and simple mono-scroll turbines. In the lower right- hand side of the figure, Peak Power Engines group that have higher specific engine power range sacrifice low-end torque for high performance goals. Then, Peak Torque Engines group have achieved to increase their low-end torque at low specific power by using direct injection technology and one cam phaser. These VTG equipped Diesel engines can provide almost the same performance as the Peak Torque Engines thus revealing the potentials of gasoline engines for higher specific engine power. From the conventional engines to one-stage turbocharging the specific low-end torque and specific engine power is limited to values of about 180 Nm/l at 85 kW/l up to 160 Nm/l at 100 kW/l. This limited power and torque ranges can be solved using the two-stage regulated turbocharging and up to 200 Nm/l of low- end torque can be delivered with power densities of more than 110 kW/l [94]. Due to the restrictions of single-stage turbochar- ging, the introduction of two-stage regulated turbocharging can significantly boost for higher charging pressure over the entire engine speed map. Furthermore, the respective stage loading of low-pressure stage and high-pressure stage can be reduced and efficiently distributed. In the two-stage turbocharger, there are two main components (or stages) that are designed to function very differently. The high-pressure turbocharger component is responsible for charging pressure at low engine speeds to ensure an increase of pressure during lower flow rate. It is situated upstream from the compressor side or downstream from the turbine side with respect to the main charging stage. With the arrangement of the turbocharger, the low speed startup torque can be represented by the high-pressure stage to enhance the low-end torque of the engine. At higher power, low-pressure turbocharger with higher maximum flow rate can be utilized. The strategy in controlling the charging group is by using the turbine by pass; waste gate and compressor bypass control elements. The share of the required total turbine power for the turbocharger is deter- mined by the turbine bypass which is generated by the high- pressure turbine. At low speed and full load, the turbine bypass is closed to allow for exhaust gases to pass both of the high-pressure and low-pressure turbochargers. Simultaneously, the air is com- pressed in two-stages at the compressor side. As the engine speed increases, the total pressure ratio also increases until finally the high-pressure turbocharger is fully deactivated by the opening of the turbine bypass on the exhaust side. During this point, the high pressure compressor is bypassed to reduce throttling losses. From medium speeds to high speeds, the high-pressure turbine is not required and only the low-pressure turbocharger is used to provide boost. To further reduce losses, below the naturally aspirated full load line; the waste gate is opened so that boost pressure is generated above the line only [94]. The BMEP of R2S system shows significant increase as com- pared to the conventional 1-stage turbo charging. Maximum BMEP level of 25 bar was achieved from the speed of 2000 RPM as compared to only about 21 bar for 1-stage turbocharger. The limit of 25 bar of BMEP was not due to the limitation of the turbocharger, but due to the engine. Concurrently, the specific power showed an increase from 85 kW/l to 100 kW/l starting from engine speed of 5000RPM. There is also a reasonable increase in BSFC due to the increase of BMEP. The absolute intake manifold pressure also shows the advantageous of two-stage turbocharging system. The pressure increases from about 1600 mbar to the peak value of 2750 mbar at speeds from 1000RPM to 1400RPM. These data show that the two-stage turbocharger system can provide high low-end torque better than a single stage turbocharger. Thus, the study can conclude that the advantages of a 2-stage turbocharger over a conventional 1-stage turbocharger are as follows: Total pressure ratios are higher than that of a 1-stage turbo- charger. Higher power outputs are possible. Better efficiencies at low pressure (LP) stage. Produces better low-end torque. Dynamic performances are better with smaller High Pressure (HP) stage (low inertia). Minimizes the turbo lag. Whereas the disadvantages of the 2-stage turbocharger includes more weight, bigger size, more required actuators and a boost pressure control more complex than 1-stage turbocharger. 5.3.2. Turbocharging for a new type of engine Turbocharger technology has also been simulated in a new type of engine. Musu et al. [95] proposed a novel combustion concept called Homogenous Charge Progressive Combustion (HCPC) that permits reduction in soot and NOx emissions in all operating conditions (during high and low engine loads). A formation of pre-compressed homogenous charge is progressively transferred into the cylinder to control the transfer flow rate and increasing pressures without relying on exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). This method is closely based on standard Homogenous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI). The authors believe that this turbocharged concept permits engine speed to increase up to 6000 rpm, with indicated thermal efficiency of 45%, power den- sity of 64 kW and 300 kPa of intake pressure. 6. Economical view and environmental impact In the design and analysis of systems which are contributing with energy, economy is combined with technical improvements to achieve the highest outcome. Many researches [96] show methods with details to calculate economic factors in presence of efficiency improvement for industrial products and this paper is not going into details for it. However some researchers [97,98] have recommended that for considering the whole aspect of a technology improvement, the exergy analysis of the system should come into consideration too. The relation between sus- tainability of a process, exergy efficiency and environmental impact can be seen in Fig. 10. Sustainability and environmental impact have reverse relation which shows that when sustain- ability increases, environmental index will decrease. For addressing sustainability issue and global environmental aspects the concept of exergy should come into consideration and sustainability index is a symbol to show the sustainability by Sustainability Environmetal Impact 0 20 40 60 80 100 Exergy Efficiency Fig. 10. Illustration of the relation between sustainability, environmental impact and exergy efficiency in a process [98]. R. Saidur et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16 (2012) 5649–5659 5657PDF Image | Heat Condensing Operating Parameters ElectraTherm
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