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Table 4: Simulation results - hazard level 3 NO LP SI LP+SI NO LP SI LP+SI Fluid (pressure in bar) I-hexane (29.4) Hexane (20.8) MM (9.9) I-hexane (20.0) Hexane (18.9) MM (9.9) Ethanol (19.0) Acetone (23.1) Benzene (12.0) Ethanol (19.2) Benzene (12.0) Acetone (20.0) Fire hazard Health hazard 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 Physical hazard ηth 0 25.9 0 25.1 1 25.4 0 25.5 0 25.5 1 25.4 0 24.0 0 23.5 0 23.1 0 24.0 0 23.2 0 23.2 Table 5: Simulation results - hazard level 2 Fluid (pressure in bar) R245ca (37.0) R236ea (57.7) RC318 (97.2) R245ca (20.0) C5F12 (20.0) R236ea (19.9) C-Propane (99.7) R245ca (37.1) R245fa (39.6) R245ca (20) R245fa (20) R236ea (19.9) Fire hazard Health hazard Physical hazard ηth 0 24.5 1 23.6 2 23.4 0 22.7 ? 20.8 1 20.3 0 19.1 0 18.3 1 17.0 0 16.3 1 14.9 1 13.3 1 2 0 1 0 1 1 2 2 ? 0 1 2 2 1 2 0 2 1 2 0 2 0 1 was the case in 20 of 36 cases. In 13 cases, the evapora- tor ∆Tpp was larger than the minimum allowable, and the limit for the superheater approach limited further optimi- sation. Those cases were mostly wet or isentropic fluids. In three cases the recuperator PP was the limiting fac- tor, and the evaporator PP and the ∆Tsh were larger than the minimum allowable. Generally the evaporator ∆Tpp was within a few degrees of the limit for subcritical opti- mised cases, while the optimum efficiency was found while having up to 10 degrees larger than the minimum allowed evaporator ∆Tpp for some of the optimised supercritical cases. In the ORC process with no constraints (Figure 3) the trend was that the optimum pressures were found at lower pressures when the heat source temperature was lower. The same trend was found in the constrained scenarios. At a heat source temperature of 180◦C, pressures were all subcritical; while at 240◦C and above, pressures were in all cases very near to the critical pressure or above. This indi- cates that supercritical processes are not beneficial when the heat source is cooler than about 240◦C for this ex- tensive group of fluid candidates, and conversely that su- percritical processes are more efficient at this temperature and above. This was not the case when looking at the ORC pro- cess without recuperator (Figure 4). Here, all of the cases below 360◦C except one, had their optimum pressures be- low the critical points. Overall, the optimum pressures were slightly lower. It seems therefore that supercritical pressures do not benefit the simple ORC process when the heat source is below 360◦C. Further analysis of the large body of simulations sug- gests that the consequence of not allowing the pressure to exceed the critical pressure is about one percentage point lower maximum net work output in comparison. The results seen in figures 3, 4 and 5 may represent a relatively wide range of power and thus a difference in the scale of the ORC plant. Accordingly, the typology and efficiency of the expander (in a final process design) may be different at each end of this scale. For the appli- cation and scale in the present work, a suitable expander may be a highly efficient axial turbine. Kang et al. [24] calculated isentropic efficiencies of around 80% from small scale, low temperature ORC experimental data. Colonna et al. [25] stated that a typical isentropic efficiency design value is 87%, for ORC turbines operating at the high end of the temperature range investigated in the present work. The assumed polytropic efficiency of 80% therefore seems to be reasonable for comparison within the temperature range investigated, since this value results in isentropic ef- ficiencies of 80-82% depending on fluid and pressure ratio. 4.2. Engine design point Regarding minimizing the hazard levels, perhaps most importantly the fire hazard in the marine application, there seems to be a clear trend in the results (Figure 6). The results suggest that there is no single fluid that can satisfy the demand for safety and high efficiency. However, the 8PDF Image | organic Rankine cycles for waste heat recovery in marine settings
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