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manufacturer of CdTe modules (First Solar) claims much higher efficiency (9% versus the 3% measured by CPRL of the Golden Photon modules). First Solar also claims degradation similar to multi-crystalline silicon (i.e. less than 1% per year). Another important point to add is that whichever modules selected, it is important that they are certified by the Underwriters Laboratory (UL). At USDA-ARS-CPRL we have tested fixed versus passive tracking systems and the results were reported most recently in 2002 (11). Several of the performance deficiencies reported in this paper (morning wake up, inability to point the modules correctly on windy days) have been improved on by the passive tracker manufacturer. Whether a passive or motorized tracking system is used, it is usually better to just add more PV modules in a fixed array than installing a tracking system unless the PV array is rated higher than 500W. 2.3 Controller Controllers for PV water pumping systems can range from not using any controller to sophisticated smart controllers. For diaphragm pumps, the simple controllers can perform many tasks such as: 1. limiting power to diaphragm pump motor in order to keep it from being damaged 2. adjusting voltage and current to improve pumping performance at lower solar radiation levels 3. providing manual disconnect switch between PV modules and pump motor 4. having a float switch to allow automatic disconnect of PV modules to pump motor when storage tank full. Fig 12 shows the affect on a diaphragm pump of either using a controller or not using a controller. Since diaphragm controllers are usually less than $200 (less than 10% of total cost), and they have proven to be very reliable, there will not be many situations when it would be better to not use a controller. The controllers used for helical pumps are more complicated than those used for diaphragm pumps, but they usually still are very reliable. One helical pump manufacturer (Grundfos) has embedded most of the controller function inside the submersible motor casing. This enables this controller to protect the motor from running dry via a wire sensor attached to motor which determines when water level is below pump intake. This embedded controller also has the capability of determining if input power is DC or single phase AC and if single phase AC, it is rectified to DC electricity before connecting to DC motor. This means that water can be pumped on cloudy days by switching from PV array to a gasoline generator. Fig 13 and 14 show how an update to this helical pump controller improved the pumping performance significantly. 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Fig. 12. Affect of Use of Controller on Daily Water Volume of a Solar Powered Diaphragm Pump. 2003 Controller --> 2006 Controller --> 6.0 6.5 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Effect of Controller Update on Pumping Performance 320W PV Array, Grundfos 6SQF-2 (~70 Volts) 4.5 5.0 5.5 Daily Solar Energy (kWh/m^2) 4.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 75 meters 75 meters 2003 Controller --> 2006 Controller --> 30 meters 50 meters 30 meters 50 meters Fig. 13. Effect of Controller Update on Solar Powered Helical Pump System (320W PV). 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Effect of Controller Update on Pumping Performance 480 & 640W PV Arrays(~105 & 140V), 75m Head Effect of Controller on Pumping Performance (Robison Quad, 20m Head, 100W PV) 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 Daily Solar Energy (kWh/m^2) 7.5 8.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 480W 640W 480W 640W 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 Daily Solar Energy (kWh/m^2) 7.0 7.5 8.0 Fig. 14. Effect of Controller Update on Solar Powered Helical Pump System (480 & 640W, 75m Head). The controllers used on solar AC water pumping systems are more complex than helical pump controllers since the DC electricity from the PV array has to be converted to single or three phase AC electricity. This is big advantage in terms of motor/pump price since it enables standard off- the-shelf motors and pumps to be used whose prices are usually cheaper due to huge volumes of this pumps being sold, but this advantage for smaller (<1.5 kW) systems is negated since the controllers are much more expensive. No Controller Use Controller Daily Water Volume (liters) Daily Water Volume (liters) Daily Water Volume (liters)PDF Image | Solar Water Pumping for Home, Livestock Watering or Irrigation
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