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110 Chapter 1 Synopsis and Executive Summary Local and regional geologic and tectonic phenomena play a major role in determining the location (depth and position) and quality (fluid chemistry and temperature) of a particular resource. For example, regions of higher than normal heat flow are associated with tectonic plate boundaries and with areas of geologically recent igneous activity and/or volcanic events (younger than about 1 million years). This is why people frequently associate geothermal energy only with places where such conditions are found – such as Iceland, New Zealand, or Japan (plate boundaries), or with Yellowstone National Park (recent volcanism) – and neglect to consider geothermal energy opportunities in other regions. In all cases, certain conditions must be met before one has a viable geothermal resource. The first requirement is accessibility. This is usually achieved by drilling to depths of interest, frequently using conventional methods similar to those used to extract oil and gas from underground reservoirs. The second requirement is sufficient reservoir productivity. For hydrothermal systems, one normally needs to have large amounts of hot, natural fluids contained in an aquifer with high natural rock permeability and porosity to ensure longterm production at economically acceptable levels. When sufficient natural recharge to the hydrothermal system does not occur, which is often the case, a reinjection scheme is necessary to ensure production rates will be maintained. Thermal energy is extracted from the reservoir by coupled transport processes (convective heat transfer in porous and/or fractured regions of rock and conduction through the rock itself). The heat extraction process must be designed with the constraints imposed by prevailing in situ hydrologic, lithologic, and geologic conditions. Typically, hot water or steam is produced and its energy is converted into a marketable product (electricity, process heat, or space heat). Any waste products must be properly treated and safely disposed of to complete the process. Many aspects of geothermal heat extraction are similar to those found in the oil, gas, coal, and mining industries. Because of these similarities, equipment, techniques, and terminology have been borrowed or adapted for use in geothermal development, a fact that has, to some degree, accelerated the development of geothermal resources. Nonetheless, there are inherent differences that have limited development such as higher wellflow requirements and temperature limitations to drilling and logging operations (see Chapters 4 and 6 for details). The U.S. Department of Energy has broadly defined Enhanced (or engineered) Geothermal Systems (EGS) as engineered reservoirs that have been created to extract economical amounts of heat from low permeability and/or porosity geothermal resources. For this assessment, we have adapted this definition to include all geothermal resources that are currently not in commercial production and require stimulation or enhancement. EGS would exclude highgrade hydrothermal but include conduction dominated, lowpermeability resources in sedimentary and basement formations, as well as geopressured, magma, and lowgrade, unproductive hydrothermal resources. In addition, we have added coproduced hot water from oil and gas production as an unconventional EGS resource type that could be developed in the short term and possibly provide a first step to more classical EGS exploitation. EGS concepts would recover thermal energy contained in subsurface rocks by creating or accessing a system of open, connected fractures through which water can be circulated down injection wells, heated by contact with the rocks, and returned to the surface in production wells to form a closed loop (Figure 1.1). The idea itself is a simple extrapolation that emulates naturally occurring hydrothermal circulation systems – those now producing electricity and heat for direct application commercially in some 71 countries worldwide.PDF Image | Synopsis and Executive Summary
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