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have impaired the construction of new coal-fired power plants in the U.S. that do not employ clean coal technology that involves carbon capture and storage (CCS). EPA is expected to also apply these regulations to existing power plants. However, coal will still account for up to 35% of U.S. electricity generation for another 30 years (U.S. Energy Information Administration 2011b). Currently, the U.S. maintains 316,000 MW of coal-fired generation, representing 30% of the nationÕs total electricity generation fleet. Clean coal is coal that is gasified and burned in high-oxygen mixtures, resulting in removal of hazardous substances such as arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, and nitrogen and sulfur dioxides, as well as capture of CO2 and hydrogen. Factors that impact costs and the selec- tion of optimal areas for new clean coal sites include (1) proximity of sites to mine mouths, (2) distance of CO2 transport via pipelines to carbon sinks, and (3) trans- mission losses between new power-generating facilities and user load (Mohan et al. 2008; Cohen et al. 2009; Dooley et al. 2009; Hamilton et al. 2009). Newcomer and Apt (2008) concluded that optimal sites for new clean coal facilities should be near the user electric load, owing to transmission losses exceeding costs of installing new CO2 pipelines and fuel transport. However, eco- nomic incentives that support new clean coal facilities should also be considered, such as EOR (enhanced oil recovery) with generated CO2 (Holtz et al. 2005; Ad- vanced Resources International 2006; Ambrose et al. 2011, 2012). Clean coal activity in North America is led by the Dakota Gasification Company where 95 million cubic feet per day of CO2, generated by gasification of North Dakota lignite, is transported via a 205-mile (328-km) pipeline to Weyburn oil field in Saskatche- wan for EOR (Chandel and Williams 2009). Weyburn field has become the largest land-based CO2 storage project in the world, having sequestered>12 million metric tonnes (Preston et al. 2009). Texas has several examples of new and planned clean coal projects that illustrate how clean coal technology can be applied to EOR. Texas, which produced 45.9 mst (41,300 metric tonnes) of coal and lignite in 2011 (U.S. Energy Information Administration 2012a), contains a wide variety of areas suitable for clean coal technologies. These areas are delineated by mapping spatial linkages between coal- and lignite-bearing formations, groundwater and surface water resources, and CO2 sinks in brine formations for long-term CO2 storage or in mature oil fields with EOR potential. Primary regions in Texas where favorably co-located CO2 source–sink factors related to coal and lignite trends include the Gulf Coast, the Eastern Shelf of the Permian Basin, and the Fort Worth Basin. However, areas outside coal and lignite basins also have clean coal potential because of existing CO2 pipelines and proximity to EOR fields that can economically sustain new clean coal facilities. The Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama part of the Gulf Coast contains an additional 4.5 bil- lion barrels (BBls; 715 million m3) of oil that could be technically produced by using miscible CO2 flooding (Holtz et al. 2005). For example, the Texas part of the Permian Basin has the potential for technical recov- ery of 5.6 BBls (890 million m3) and economic recovery of 0.7 BBls (111 million m3) of oil from 127 reservoirs (Advanced Resources International 2006). Although the CO2 pipeline infrastructure is well developed in the Permian Basin, the Texas Gulf Coast also has great potential for clean coal devel- opment, owing to co-located CO2 sources and sinks such as mine-mouth electric power plants and abun- dant lignite resources, as well as CO2 storage potential in EOR fields, deep, unmined low-rank coal seams (McVay et al. 2009), and thick brine formations. Three clean coal projects and facilities are being developed in Texas, including (1) the NRG Parish Plant near Houston (NRG 2013), (2) the Tenaska Plant near Sweetwater (Tenaska 2013), and (3) the TCEP Summit Plant near Odessa (TCEP 2013). The NRG Parish Plant contains four main units, with up to 2,650 MW of coal- fired and 1,200 MW of gas-fired generation capacity. Its advanced burners can achieve 50–60% reductions in NOx and it has a flue-gas slipstream that can capture 90% of the CO2. Up to 1.65 metric tonnes (1.8 mst) of CO2 will be sequestered annually. EOR opportunities exist in the Frio Formation (Oligocene) in nearby oil fields, including West Ranch field in Jackson County (Galloway and Cheng 1985; Galloway 1986). The Tenaska Plant near Sweetwater, Texas is to be a 2,400-acre (970 ha) facility to be completed in 2014. The plant is designed for supercritical steam generation, using dry-cooling technology. It will have a 600 MW net capacity and coal will be supplied from the Powder River Basin. The plant will capture 85– 90% CO2 for EOR and additional production of 10 million BBls/year in the Permian Basin. Prominent nearby oil fields include the SACROC Unit (Scurry Area Canyon Reef Operators Committee), from which oil has been produced from miscible-CO2 floods since 1971 (Brummett et al. 1976). Operations for construction of the Summit Plant near Odessa, Texas are to begin in 2014–2015. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Energy Minerals DivisionPDF Image | Unconventional Energy Resources
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