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Unconventional Energy Resources: 2013 Review geothermal, nuclear, and burning of slag); (2) methods to reduce the viscosity of the bitumen so it will flow to the well bore or through pipelines more easily (such as use of diluents, catalysts, microbial, and nanotechnol- ogy); (3) underground in situ extraction, refining, and upgrading; and (4) co-sequestration of greenhouse gases by injection into abandoned reservoirs or other deep geologic sites. There was in the past an excess supply of produced sulfur, above what was used in agricultural and other markets. Excess sulfur is stockpiled from bitumen and sour gas production and refining. Produced and stored sulfur is sold to various markets, the largest being China, mainly converted to sulfuric acid for use in manufacturing phosphate fertilizer (ERCB 2012). In California, where the principal thermal recovery methods currently are steam flood and CSS, an emphasis is being placed on increasing in situ recovery factors through fully integrated reservoirs characterization and improvements in thermal recovery technologies to make them effec- tive, as well as more energy-efficient and less pol- luting (Dusseault 2013). New sources of heat for steam generation are being tested. For instance, in the San Joaquin Basin two solar steam heavy oil recovery demonstration projects have been operat- ing since 2011. One is a Chevron-Bright Source Energy partnership in the Coalinga field (Fig. 20). The other is a Berry Petroleum Co.–GlassPoint Solar partnership in a portion of the McKittrick field. Environmental Issues The primary environmental issues relate to the balance among greenhouse gas emissions and water/ energy usage and the recovery, production, and upgrading of bitumen. Specifically, the critical environmental focus is how to cleanly, efficiently, and safely extract, produce, and upgrade the bitu- men. Goals include reducing (1) energy required to heat the water to steam and (2) CO2 emissions. Current greenhouse gas emissions are decreasing and remaining emissions are compensated for by carbon trading and (or) CO2 sequestration; and (3) improving the economics and processes of extrac- tion, production, and upgrading of the bitumen. Some of the areas of focus include Land reclamation in surface mining Tailings and consolidated tailings disposal and reclamation Bitumen upgrading and coproduction of other products from tailings (such as vana- dium, nickel, and sulfur) In situ recovery Underground refining. Oil sand developers in Canada are focused on reducing CO2 emissions by 45% per barrel by 2010, as compared to 1990 levels. Also in Canada, devel- opers are legislated to restore oil sand mining sites to at least the equivalent of their previous biological productivity. For example, at development sites near Fort McMurray, Alberta, the First Nation aboriginal community, as part of the Athabasca Tribal Council, and industry have worked together to reclaim dis- turbed land (Boucher 2012) and industry has re- claimed much of the previous tailings pond areas into grasslands that are now supporting a modest bison herd (500–700 head). New Publication AAPG Studies in Geology 64 entitled ‘‘Heavy- oil and Oil-Sand Petroleum Systems in Alberta and Beyond’’ has been released in April 2013 (book- store@aapg.org). It is a combination hard-copy and CD publication, with 160 pages printed (3 chapters), and all 28 chapters in electronic form on the CD- ROM. This oil sands and heavy oils research in- cludes presentations from the 2007 Hedberg con- ference in Banff, Canada titled ‘‘Heavy oil and bitumen in foreland basins—From processes to products.’’ Publication editors are Frances Hein, Dale Leckie, Steve Larter, and John Suter. The volume contains 28 chapters that encompass depo- sitional settings of oil sands and heavy oil accumu- lations, reservoir characterizations, geochemical characteristics of bitumen and of oil biodegradation, geologic and petroleum system modeling, petroleum reserves and resources, surface mining and in situ production processes, such as SAGD, for accumu- lations in Canada, Russia, the U.S., and Venezuela, and oil sands tailings and water use management.PDF Image | Unconventional Energy Resources
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