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mines will rise for decades to come. Uranium exploration will continue on Earth in regions where new discoveries have been made on every continent, except Antarctica, and off-world until fusion be- comes the principal source of power perhaps at least by the end of the twenty-first century (Campbell and Wiley 2011; Campbell et al. 2013). Introducing a major MIT report (MIT 2013) on the future of natural gas, Moniz called this transition ‘‘a bridge to a low-carbon future’’ of not burning fuels to produce electricity. ‘‘In the long term, nat- ural gas would also likely be phased out in favor of zero-carbon options such as nuclear power,’’ he said. But ‘‘for the next several decades, however, natural gas will continue to play a crucial role in enabling very substantial reductions in carbon emissions.’’ Nuclear power is considered a low-carbon source of energy that mitigates fossil fuel emissions and the resulting health damage and deaths caused by air pollution from burning hydrocarbons and especially from coal. Jogalekar (2013) reported that Kharecha and Hansen (2013), (the latter of whom is a well- known proponent of climate change) estimated that as many as 1.8 million human lives would be saved by replacing fossil fuel sources with nuclear power. Kharecha and Hansen (2013) also estimated the saving of up to seven million lives in the next four decades, along with substantial reductions in carbon emissions, if nuclear power were to replace fossil fuel usage on a large scale. This includes coal and hydrocarbons. In addition, their study found that the proposed expansion of natural gas would not be as effective in saving lives and preventing carbon emissions. In general, they provided optimistic rea- sons for the responsible and increased use of nuclear technologies in the near future. They also emphasized the point that nuclear energy has prevented many more deaths than acci- dents related to production from other energy sources (coal, oil and gas, geothermal energy, wind, and solar), with the exception of hydropower. For an assessment of risks also see Campbell (2005) for a review of human risks and attitudes toward nuclear power used to supply the U.S. electrical power grid. U.S. Nuclear Power Industry The designed age for nuclear reactors in the U.S. is 40 years. The average age of the 104 working plants is 32 years, according to the EIA (U.S. Energy Informa- tion Administration 2013b), a part of the U.S. DOE. With age is sure to come more maintenance and more outages. Other operators are likely to take the path chosen by the Kewaunee plant in Wisconsin and by the Crystal River Plant in Florida and begin the lengthy, complex, and expensive process of shutting down, cleaning up, and decommissioning (USNRC 2013a). Primarily a result of the Fukushima tsunami disaster in 2011, new nuclear plant safety requirements have been added to include emergency backup power and instrumentation to ensure that spent fuel pools operate adequately. All these reactors must also now have hardened vents for reactor containment structures to relieve pressure and discharge built-up hydrogen during a reactor vessel accident. The Nuclear Regula- tory Commission (NRC) is also contemplating requir- ing filters to capture vented radioactive material. As retirements near for many of the U.S. nuclear reactors, NRCÕs oversight of the trust funds used to pay for decommissioning becomes paramount. Last year, a review by the Government Accountability Office (GAO), the investigative arm of Congress, challenged NRCÕs formula for determining the size of these funds (USGAO 2012). The GAO report char- ges that the formula lacks detail and transparency, and in a sample of power plant savings programs, the report found NRCÕs formula may underestimate cleanup costs (USNRC 2013b). GAO investigated 12 reactorsÕ trust funds, comparing company-prepared site-specific decommissioning cost estimates to NRCÕs formula. For nine reactors, NRCÕs formula resulted in funds below the companiesÕ estimates. In one case, a company believed it needed $836 million, which was $362 million more than NRCÕs formula figure. GAO also noted NRCÕs funding formula was more than 30 years old (Johnson 2013). The Vogtie Nuclear Plant in South Carolina has commenced construction of a new reactor, the sec- ond AP 1000 in America to start construction early 2013. World Nuclear News (WNN) also reported pouring of special basement concrete in South Car- olina at the VC Summer Nuclear Plant. The site is the first reactor construction in 30 years. In addition, a second round of funding by the U.S. Government to encourage the development of Small Modular Reactors has begun (WNN 2013a). Status of U.S. Uranium Industry 1st Quarter 2013 Statistics U.S. Energy Infor- mation Administration (2013c) reported that U.S. production of U in the first quarter 2013 was American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Energy Minerals DivisionPDF Image | Unconventional Energy Resources
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