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Unconventional Energy Resources: 2013 Review deposits for Ti, Zr, Sn, and REEs. Thorium is widely available in Australia from sands containing monazite in heavy-mineral beach sand deposits (Memagh 2008). Thorium (and REEs) have also been tenta- tively identified on the Moon (Campbell and Ambrose 2010). Status of the REE Industry The EMD Mid-Year Report for 2011 offers the uninitiated reader an introduction to the REE commodities. That report covers the list of 17 REEs, their geological origins and distribution, production, prices, and explores some of the geopolitical issues involved, with a brief description of the REEs on the Moon. That report also contains extensive intro- ductory discussions and references on REEs and associated deposits (Campbell 2011). Light REEs. Binnemans et al. (2013) reported that the balance between the demand by the economic markets and the natural abundance of the REEs in ores is a major problem for the marketing of these elements. At present, the light REEs (LREEs) market is driven by the demand for Nd for use in the manufacture of neodymium–iron–boron (NdFeB) magnets. For example, only about 25,000 short tons (22,680 metric tonnes) of Nd were required for the production of magnets in 2011. This means that significant quantities of REE ores had to be mined to produce 25,000 short tons (22,680 metric tonnes) of Nd metal. Since the natural abundance of Nd is relatively low in LREE ores (say 0.10% Nd for example), then only about 300 thousand short tons (2,721 metric tonnes) of ore would needed to be mined and processed to produce 25,000 tons (22,680 metric tonnes) of Nd metal (making certain assumptions about metal recovery during mining, processing, and separating the concentrates into Nd metal), with Ce, Pr, and Sm often produced from the same ore but processed separately to produce mar- ketable concentrates or metals. At present the demand is not large, and although this is expected to rise as magnet demand rises, espe- cially for Sm, the LREEs are available in various parts of the world but China is currently controlling the prices to a significant extent. For additional information on REEs occurring off-world (especially Sm) see Campbell et al. (2013, pp. 194–195). The La market is in balance, i.e., produc- tion = sales, for use in Ni metal hydride batteries and optical glasses. Praseodymium can be used as an admixture in NdFeB magnets but not Sm. More Sm- Co magnets could be produced, but the high price of Co is an issue. To bring the LREE market into balance, new high-volume applications using Sm, Pr, and especially Ce are required. Heavy REEs. Binnemans et al. (2013) reported that the heavy REEs (HREEs) are produced in much smaller quantities than the LREEs. Currently, the HREE market is driven by the demand for Dy, which is used to increase the temperature resistance of NdFeB magnets. About 1,600 short tons (1,451 metric tonnes) of Dy were consumed in 2011. The supply equals the demand for Eu, Y, and Er. How- ever, there is a shortage of Tb, but this problem can still be relieved by the use of stockpiles. Gadolinium, Ho, Tm, Yb, and Lu are produced in excess and are stockpiled at most production sites around the world. New large volume applications are needed that use the heaviest REEs (Ho through Lu on the element periodic chart). Apparently, no large-scale separation of these elements is being performed by industry. Although production levels of the REEs are relatively small, Tanton (2012) estimated that the U.S. must import 96% of the REEs consumed (and 92% of U consumed), while $40 billion in increased economic development are lost and nearly 9,000 jobs are not filled due to bureaucratic and political de- mands impacting mine permitting in the U.S. He recommended trade missions to Australia and Canada where mine permitting is often completed in one quarter of the time while meeting all appropri- ate environmental and mine-safety concerns, which minimizes mining project opponents from delaying or denying mining projects through litigation. Status of Selected REE Projects. Although the first quarter of 2013 was challenging for the REE sector as a whole because of depressed markets for devel- opment funding, there have been some notable developments, especially with a few junior REE mining companies. China continues to acquire properties and companies in various parts of the world. Currie (2013) provided a summary of current REE activities. The following are selected high- lights: Greenland Minerals and Energy Ltd. conducted studies that show that the costs and risks associated with its Kvanefjeld project can be lowered and its financial returns increased if it establishes thePDF Image | Unconventional Energy Resources
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