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extract the heated water. The system therefore consists of (i) the borehole used for hydraulic fracturing, through which cold water is injected into (ii) the artificial reservoir, and (iii) the borehole used to extract the hot water. The entire system, complete with surface utilization plant, could form a closed loop. This interesting project was eventually abandoned after a number of years of experiments as it proved too expensive and the results were not entirely satisfactory. For the last few years a great deal of effort has instead been invested in r' eservoir stimulation' tests, which utilize some of the technology of the Hot Dry Rock project. Reservoir stimulation is based on the premise that hot rock formations containing fluids may often have such low permeabilities that the fluids are unable to circulate and no geothermal system can develop. This situation may simply be a consequence of the nature of the rock formation, but could also result from the partial sealing of existing fractures within or on the margins of exploited geothermal fields, as a consequence of mineral deposition during exploitation. Under certain conditions, the natural permeability of the rock can be increased, or its original permeability reinstated, by means of a technique developed in the oil industry whereby acid solutions are injected underground. Tests conducted so far have, however, indicated that the most effective means of stimulating the reservoir is by hydraulic fracturing. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES The following are some of the most common definitions and classifications of geothermal resources. The most common criterion for classifying geothermal resources is that based on the enthalpy of the geothermal fluids that act as the carrier transporting heat from the deep hot rocks to the surface. Enthalpy, which can be considered more or less proportional to temperature, is used to express the heat (thermal energy) content of the fluids, and gives a rough idea of their 'value'. The resources are divided into low, medium and high enthalpy (or temperature) resources, according to several criteria (Table 4). Muffler and Cataldi (1978) use classification (a) of Table 4. Other experts prefer classification (b), such as Hochstein (1990), or (c), for example, Benderitter and Cormy (1990). Nicholson (1993) recommends classification (d), which makes a rough distinction between resources suited to electricity generation (high enthalpy) and resources more suited to direct heat use (low enthalpy). To avoid confusion and ambiguity the temperature values or ranges involved need specifying each time, since terms such as low, intermediate and high are meaningless at best, and frequently misleading. Frequently a distinction is made between water- or liquid-dominated geothermal systems and vapour-dominated (or dry steam) geothermal systems (White, 1973). In water- dominated systems liquid water is the continuous, pressure-controlling fluid phase. Some vapour may be present, generally as discrete bubbles. These geothermal systems, whose temperatures may range from < 125 to > 225°C, are the most widely distributed in the world. 10PDF Image | What is geothermal energy
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