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32 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS assessment of biomass volumes used for energy carriers and final energy. Further, biomass often relies on widely dispersed, non-commercial sources, which makes it difficult to formally track data and trends. National data collection is often carried out by multiple institutions that are not always well co-ordinated. As a result, production and demand for biomass and bioenergy are relatively difficult to measure, even at the local level; hence, national, regional, and global data are uncertain.6 (See Sidebar 1, page 23, and Figure 5, page 31; see also Sidebar 2 in GSR 2012.) ■■BIOENERGY MARKETS In 2013, biomass accounted for about 10% of global primary energy supply—or an estimated 56.6 EJ.7 The “modern biomass” share included approximately 13 EJ to supply heat in the building and industry sectors; an estimated 5 EJ converted to produce around 116 billion litres of biofuels (assuming 60% conversion efficiency of the original biomass), and a similar amount used to generate an estimated 405 TWh of electricity (assuming 30% conversion efficiency).8 Useful heat is also often generated in bioenergy combined heat and power (CHP) plants, but the total quantities are unknown because much of this is consumed on-site and not tracked. SIDEBAR 3. BIOENERGY CARBON ACCOUNTING There is a continuing debate around the sustainability of biomass use for energy, particularly with respect to the carbon footprint. Many research and policy endeavours in recent years have focussed on quantifying the greenhouse gas emissions associated with direct and indirect land-use change. To date, the focus has been almost exclusively on liquid biofuel production systems. However, the increasing use of solid biomass—forest biomass in particular—in modern applications (for example, wood chips in residential heating or district heating plants, or co-firing of wood pellets in coal-fired power plants) has recently shifted the focus of the carbon footprint debate. There appears to be general agreement among stakeholders that carbon emitted through the combustion of biomass for energy production was and will again be sequestered from the atmosphere, if the quantity of biomass used can be associated with the regrowth of a crop or forest in a sustainable (biomass) management system. However, there is concern about the time lag between carbon release via combustion and carbon (re-) sequestration via plant growth. A temporal carbon imbalance is relevant particularly for forest biomass systems that have relatively long rotation cycles, and generally for bioenergy’s potential to effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the medium-to-long term. Therefore, consensus is emerging to account for biogenic carbon emissions over time, although the principles to do so and the respective expectations vary considerably. To date, much of the scientific work has focussed on determining the “carbon payback” period—the time frame by when a bioenergy system has reached its pre-harvest biogenic carbon levels and is also compensated for associated land-use and fossil fuel emissions. Results differ depending on the modelling framework and assumptions regarding affected ecosystems, conversion technologies, and behavioural economics. Generally, the use of residues from tree harvesting (tops, branches, and thinning of small trees) or wood processing (shavings, offcuts, sawdust) entails shorter carbon payback periods than the use of large-diameter stemwood, especially from slow-growing forests or low-productive regions. The use of smaller-diameter, pulpwood quality logs from fast-growing plantation forests in highly productive regions, however, can achieve relatively short carbon payback periods. In addition, there is disagreement around what duration of carbon payback is acceptable. The two most commonly used time frames in the literature are 2050, which is relevant for policy trajectories, and 2100, which is considered relevant for stabilisation of the atmospheric carbon levels. Timeline selection influences which bioenergy systems—for example, type of feedstock, scale of magnitude, technology choices—should be considered. Another key determining factor for a given bioenergy project is linked to alternative land-use and energy sources: that is, what would happen on the land and what energy source would be employed without the use of biomass? Answers depend on regional circumstances that vary with market conditions for wood products, forest management practices, and alternative energy systems; and perspectives on these conditions may differ among stakeholders. Policy options to deal with biogenic carbon emissions include mechanisms that quantify associated emissions, such as the integration of forest carbon accounting in a full life-cycle assessment (LCA), although there is not a scientific consensus on how to model forest products appropriately. Preventative policy approaches include requirements for sustainable forest management that guarantee replanting and sustained carbon stocks/yields, as well as actively encouraging/discouraging the use of specific land and biomass types, such as peat soils, whose drainage releases large amounts of greenhouse gases. Conversely, promoting afforestation and reforestation of woody biomass and perennial grass production on marginal and unused land can create immediate net carbon benefits.i Current policy options in Europe and North America entail all of these approaches. In 2013, for example, the U.K. government provided a draft greenhouse gas calculator (including default values) to quantify the respective emission reductions of forest biomass use for energy as part of its Renewable Obligation Scheme. Also the Dutch government announced the investigation of a specific carbon debt criterion in 2014. i - A policy option would, for example, include the compensation or generation of carbon credits for tree planting, in proportion to the net CO2 absorption/sequestration. Source: See Endnote 4 for this section.PDF Image | About ElectraTherm
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