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02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS Elsewhere around the world, several new processing plants began operation with feedstocks other than corn and sugar cane. They include Manildra (0.3 billion litres per year), the only fuel ethanol producer in New South Wales, Australia, to receive a government subsidy for producing ethanol from wheat starch. Other feedstocks being used at plants in Australia include red sorghum (United Petroleum) and molasses (at the Wilmar Bioethanol plant).128 In sub-Saharan Africa, cassava, traditionally grown for beer and flour, is growing in popularity as a biofuel feedstock. For example, Sunbird Bioenergy Africa partnered with China New Energy to establish a USD 24 million cassava-based ethanol plant in Nigeria (110 million litre per year); it is expected to be the first of 10 such plants.129 Advanced biofuels using non-food feedstocks became commercially available in 2013. In North America, U.S.-based plants owned by Gevo and KiOR finally produced and sold their first batches into the market.130 Enerkem commissioned its 38 million litre per year biomethanol plant in Edmonton, Alberta, using MSW as the feedstock.131 By early 2014, cellulosic biofuel production facilities were under development in 20 U.S. states.132 In Europe, Novozymes and Beta Renewables opened a new commercial plant in Italy which, as of commissioning in October, was the world’s largest advanced biofuels facility. The plant will produce ethanol from wheat straw, rice straw, and arundo donax (a high-yielding energy crop that is grown on marginal land).133 A commercial-scale plant also has been constructed in China.134 Advanced biofuel demonstration plant developments in 2013 included the Canadian enzyme and biofuels company Iogen licensing its ligno-cellulosic-to-ethanol technology (piloted for 10 years) to REP (Brazil). REP plans to make 40 million litres of ethanol per year in a new USD 100 million plant.135 Lanzatech (New Zealand) uses hydrogen-producing microbes to convert the carbon monoxide recovered from steel mill waste gases, chemical plants, and biomass gasification, into drop-in, hydrocarbon biofuels and chemicals, entering the Chinese market.136 In addition, Empryo BV, a subsidiary of BTG BV, began construction of a pyrolysis plant in the Netherlands that will produce 20 million litres of bio-oil annually; and Clarion’s cellulosic demonstration plant in Straubing, Germany, ferments wheat straw into ethanol that is then blended with conventional fuel additives by Haltermann (Germany) to produce a novel drop-in fuel equivalent to E20.137 The aviation industry continued to monitor the increasing uptake of advanced biofuels, including those produced from algae. The industry’s interest stems from the current high dependence on petroleum fuels, uncertainty about long-term supplies, and the lack of other suitable fuel alternatives.138 In 2013, Boeing (United States) claimed that there was enough biofuel production capacity already in place to supply around 1% of jet fuel demand (about 6 billion litres per year) at a competitive cost.139 The Sinopec group, which runs oil refineries in China, was licensed to market its own version of No. 1 Aviation Biofuel for use at the commercial level.140 GEOTHERMAL POWER AND HEAT ■■GEOTHERMAL MARKETS Geothermal resources provide energy in the form of electricity and direct heating and cooling, totalling an estimated 600 PJ (167 TWh)i in 2013.1 Geothermal electricity generation is estimated to be a little less than half of the total final geothermal output, at 76 TWh, with the remaining 91 TWh (328 PJ) representing direct use.ii Some geothermal plants produce both electricity and thermal output for various heat applications. At least 530 MW of new geothermal power generating capacity came on line in 2013, bringing total global capacity to 12 GW, generating an estimated 76 TWh annually.2 Accounting for the replacement of some existing units, the net increase in total world capacity was at least 465 MW. This growth in cumulative capacity of about 4% compares to an average annual growth rate of 3% for the two previous years (2010–12).3 Countries that added capacity in 2013 were New Zealand, Turkey, the United States, Kenya, Mexico, the Philippines, Germany, Italy, and Australia.4 (See Figure 8.) At the end of 2013, the countries with the largest amounts of geothermal electric generating capacity were the United States (3.4 GW), the Philippines (1.9 GW), Indonesia (1.3 GW), Mexico (1.0 GW), Italy (0.9 GW), New Zealand (0.9 GW), Iceland (0.7 GW), and Japan (0.5 GW).5 (See Figure 9.) New Zealand installed 241 MW of new geothermal power capacity in 2013, for net additions of 196 MW, increasing total capacity by 30% to 0.9 GW. The Te Mihi plant (159 MW) came on line in 2013, but problems with well pumps delayed full commissioning into 2014.6 Te Mihi will eventually replace parts of the Wairakei station, which was built in 1958, operating at a higher efficiency level and with a smaller environmental footprint.7 Currently, the result is a net capacity increase of about 114 MW.8 Late in the year, New Zealand also commissioned the 82 MW Ngatamariki geothermal power station.9 Reportedly the world’s largest binaryiii installation, Ngatamariki re-injects all used geothermal fluid back into the underground reservoir without depleting it, thereby minimising emissions and other environmental impacts.10 Turkey added at least 112 MW of geothermal generating capacity in 2013, for a total of at least 275 MW.11 Most notable may be the installation of a 60 MW triple-flash turbine in the Denizli field.12 Other capacity to come on line in Turkey in 2013 was made up of smaller binary units.13 Turkey promises to be an important market in the region in the near future, with over 300 MW of additional capacity under licence or construction at year's end.14 The United States added 84 MW of geothermal generating capacity in 2013, for a total of 3.4 GW, representing nearly 29% of total world operating capacity. One of the larger U.S. plants to come on line in 2013 was Enel Green Power's 25 MW binary plant in Fort Cove, Utah.15 Although relatively small in capacity, 38 i - This total does not include the output of ground-source (geothermal) heat pumps. ii - The estimated value for direct use output is subject to great uncertainty due to incomplete and conflicting data. iii - In a binary plant, the geothermal fluid heats and vaporises a separate working fluid, which drives a turbine for power generation. Each fluid cycle is closed, and the geothermal fluid is re-injected into the heat reservoir. In a conventional thermal power plant, the working fluid is water. Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) binary geothermal plants use an organic fluid with a lower boiling point than water, allowing effective and efficient extraction of heat for power generation from relatively low-temperature geothermal fields. The Kalina cycle is another variant for implementing a binary plant. (See for example: Ormat, “Binary Geothermal Power Plant,” http://www.ormat.com/solutions/Geothermal_Binary_Plant, and U.S. Department of Energy, Geothermal Technologies Office, “Electricity Generation,” http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/powerplants.html.)PDF Image | About ElectraTherm
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