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several African countries, including Egypt, Mozambique, Tunisia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, the most mature market in sub- Saharan Africa.33 However, markets in many developing countries are challenged by a lack of standards, leading to use of inferior products and poor installations, which have undermined solar thermal’s reputation.34 At the end of 2012, Cyprus remained the world leader on a per capita basis considering all water collectors, with 548 kilowatts-thermal (kWth) per 1,000 inhabitants, followed by Austria (420 kWth), Israel (385 kWth), Barbados (320 kWth), and Greece (268 kWth).35 Most solar thermal systems are used for domestic water heating, and they typically meet 40–80% of demand.36 There is a trend towards larger domestic water heating systems for hotels, schools, multi-family homes, and other large complexes.37 The use of solar thermal systems for space heating is also gaining ground, particularly in Central Europe, where 100% solar-heated buildings have been demonstrated (although typically solar meets 15–30% of space heating demand).38 “Combi-systems,” which provide water and space heating, account for about 4% of the global solar thermal heat market.39 They are most common in Europe (particularly Austria, Germany, Italy, and Poland) and represent about 40% of installed systems in Austria and Germany.40 Solar thermal heating can be combined with various back-up heat sources, and hybrid systems with heat pumps are gaining popularity in Europe.41 Domestic hot water and space heating are provided by conventional flat plate and evacuated tube collectors, which typically supply heat at temperatures below 60 °C.42 Advanced collectors can be used for solar-assisted district heating as well as industrial and commercial applications with typical operating temperatures in the 60–120 °C range; they can also drive some cooling systems.43 Concentrating systems—including parabolic trough, dish, and Fresnel collectors (smaller than their CSP relatives and adapted to specific needs)—provide heat at higher temperatures (typically 120–250 °C, and up to 400 °C) for industrial processes or to drive double- or triple-stage absorption chillers.44 An increasing number of district heating systems relies on solar thermal technology, often combined with other heat sources such as biomass.45 Although the market for such systems remains relatively small, interest has increased in recent years, particularly across Europe.46 More than 200 solar thermal district heating plants operate in about 20 EU countries, with 50 of these in Denmark (where systems are cost competitive), and over 20 each in Austria, Germany, and Sweden.47 Interest is rising beyond Europe as well, with large heat systems also operating in Canada, China, and South Africa.48 At least 17 plants bigger than 700 kWth (1,000 m2) were constructed in 2013, and the world’s largest plant began operating in Denmark in early 2014.49 The still-modest global solar cooling market grew at an average annual rate exceeding 40% between 2004 and 2012, and approximately 1,050 systems of all technology types and sizes were installed by 2013.50 While most of these systems were in Europe (81%), use of solar cooling is rising in many regions with sunny dry climates, including Australia, India, Mediterranean islands, and the Middle East.51 The availability of small (<20 kW) cooling kits for residential use has increased interest in the residential sector in Central Europe and elsewhere, and large- scale systems are gaining appeal due to their more favourable economics.52 One of the market drivers for solar cooling is the potential to reduce peak electricity demand, particularly in countries with significant cooling needs.53 Solar thermal technologies are being used increasingly for industrial applications, providing heat and steam, refrigeration, and air conditioning.54 Major industrial applications include food processing, cooking, and textile manufacturing.55 In 2013, the world’s largest low-temperature system was inaugurated in Chile, where it is expected to cover 85% of the heat demand of the Gaby copper mine.56 Other 2013 projects included dairies in Mexico and Switzerland, leather tanneries in Kenya and Thailand, and a chemical manufacturing facility in Germany.57 India leads in the use of concentrating solar thermal systems with at least 145 systems producing steam, primarily for cooking.58 Rising fuel prices have driven rapid expansion and, as of early 2014, India had an estimated nearly 20 MWth for industrial applications.59 In 2013, several countries offered funding specifically for solar process heat.60 Although interest is growing around the world, district heating networks, solar air conditioning, and solar process heat for industrial purposes account for only about 1% of global solar thermal capacity.61 There also exists a large untapped potential for new applications such as water treatment and sea water desalination.62 ■■SOLAR THERMAL HEATING/COOLING INDUSTRY China maintained its multi-year lead in the global solar heating industry, producing an estimated 50.1 GWth (71.6 million m2) of collectors in 2013.63 Export activities remained negligible (1.8% in 2012, or USD 300 million) compared to the industry’s total turnover, but they continued to increase.64 The market shares of Chinese vacuum tubes continued to rise in price-sensitive export markets including Poland, Turkey, and India.65 By contrast, Europe saw accelerated consolidation during 2013, with several large suppliers announcing their exit from solar thermal manufacturing.66 In two cases, management buyouts prevented abandonment of the collector technology or brand.67 However, a large number of smaller European collector manu- facturers no longer considers in-house production to be economically feasible due to high price pressures and low-cost imports from outside Europe, especially from China.68 To offset decreasing domestic demand, many European companies have focussed on foreign markets through local partnerships and investments.69 RENEWABLES 2014 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 55 02PDF Image | About ElectraTherm
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