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variable renewables.82 In addition, there is a shortage of skilled personnel in new markets that are experiencing rapid growth, particularly in Africa and Latin America, and in some more mature markets where significant policy uncertainty makes it difficult to keep trained staff in the sector.83 (See Sidebar 6 for more on renewable energy jobs.) Most of the world’s turbine manufacturers are in China, Denmark, Germany, India, Spain, the United States, and Japan, and components are supplied from many countries.84 An increasing number of manufacturers are in Brazil, with France and South Korea also emerging as producers of wind technology.85 The world’s top 10 turbine manufacturers captured nearly 70% of the market in 2013 (down from 77% in 2012).86 Vestas (Denmark) regained the top spot from GE Wind (United States), which suffered from the poor U.S. market and fell to fifth. Goldwind (China) climbed four steps to second, followed by Enercon and Siemens (both Germany), which switched spots. Other top manufacturers were Gamesa (Spain), Suzlon Group (India), United Power and Mingyang (both China), and Nordex (Germany).87 (See Figure 21.) To deal with challenges and to maintain profitability, turbine manufacturers are revamping their supply chains with techniques such as component commonality and just-in-time stocking.88 While many still make most of the critical parts, there is a trend towards outsourcing and flexible manufacturing.89 Some companies focus increasingly on project operation and maintenance, which provides steady business even when sales are down, and can increase value in an increasingly competitive market.90 Others are joining forces: Mitsubishi (Japan) and Vestas, and Areva (French nuclear supplier) and Gamesa, announced joint ventures for offshore turbine development.91 Most are now vertically integrated, with very few companies left that are purely wind turbine manufacturers.92 Local sourcing is increasing in response to local-content rules as well as the potential for cheaper finance, shorter lead times, insulation from exchange rate changes and customs duties, and reduced costs and logistical issues associated with shipping of big, heavy turbines and parts.93 To reduce transport costs, Vestas and shipper SNCF Geodis (France) in Europe, and Siemens in the United States, have begun moving blades by rail, although the practice is still in an early phase.94 Turbine designs continue to evolve to reduce costs and increase yield, with trends towards larger machines (higher hub height, longer blades, greater nameplate capacity), developments to reduce operations and maintenance costs, and shifts in technologies and strategies to improve the economics of wind power in a wider range of wind regimes and operating conditions.95 Progress in recent years has boosted energy yields, particularly in low-wind sites.96 In 2013, GE launched services packages to improve the power output of individual turbines and wind farms, and introduced a 2.5 MW turbine that incorporates energy storage capability.97 The share of gearless, or direct-drive, turbines increased again (from 12% in 2008 to 28% in 2013), and the move continued towards tailor-made turbine designs for offshore use.98 The average size of turbines delivered to market in 2013 was 1.9 MW, up from 1.8 MW in 2012.99 Average turbine sizes were 2.7 MW in Germany, 1.8 MW in the United States, 1.7 MW in China, and 1.3 MW in India.100 The largest commercially available turbine (Enercon’s E-126, up to 7.6 MW), is used in the onshore sector.101 The average size installed offshore in Europe remained at about 4 MW.102 New machines in the 5–8 MW range are being tested for offshore use in Europe and Asia, while leading Chinese manufacturers are competing to develop turbines of 10 MW and larger, spurred on by government grants.103 In addition to bigger turbines, the offshore industry is seeing larger projects, and moving farther out, into deeper waters.104 To date, deep-water offshore wind has focussed on foundations adapted from the oil and gas industry, but new designs are under development around the world.105 In 2013, Japan floated two 2 MW machines, with plans to commercialise the technology as soon as possible, and the United Kingdom launched a leasing round for floating offshore wind.106 Japan and others aim to drive down costs and hope offshore wind will revitalise old ports and related industries.107 New, larger and more-sophisticated vessels are being developed to deploy turbines in deeper waters and under harsher weather conditions, with British, Chinese, German, and South Korean shipbuilders expanding into the industry.108 Larger vessels are also required to transport longer and larger subsea cables to higher-capacity, more distant offshore projects.109 These trends have pushed up prices in recent years.110 As of early 2014, the levelised cost of offshore wind power was nearly USD 240/MWh (EUR 172/MWh), but the potential for lowering costs through reductions in lifecycle financial costs is considered significant.111 The small-scale (<100 kW) wind industry also continued to mature in 2013, with hundreds of manufacturers worldwide, expanding dealer networks, and increasing importance of turbine certification.112 Most manufacturers and service providers are concentrated in China, North America, and Europe.113 About three-quarters of the world’s manufacturers produce horizontal- axis machines, with others focussing on vertical or both types; most vertical-axis models have been developed over the past 5–7 years.114 See Table 2 on pages 64–65 for a summary of the main renewable energy technologies and their characteristics and costs.115 RENEWABLES 2014 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 61 02PDF Image | About ElectraTherm
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