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86 04 POLICY LANDSCAPE ■■GREEN ENERGY PURCHASING AND LABELLING New government policies to support green purchasing and labelling continue to advance only slowly. Green energy labelling provides consumers with the opportunity to purchase “green” electricity as well as “green” gas, heat, and transport fuels, by evaluating the generation source of available energy supply options. Green power labels are employed in a number of countries and are mostly voluntary, but some governments mandate their use. In 2013, Austria enacted mandates to ensure that suppliers label the energy that they provide.143 In addition to voluntary sales of green energy by energy providers to private individuals and businesses, a number of governments require that utilities and/or electricity suppliers offer green power products. Further, governments themselves have committed to purchasing renewable energy to meet their own energy needs. While this is particularly common at the local government level (see the following sub-section on City and Local Government Policies), there are examples at the national level. In 2013, Thailand established a USD 121 million (THB 4 billion) fund to encourage state agencies to deploy solar PV systems on their buildings.144 In the United States, a 2013 Executive Order requires the federal government to source 20% of its electricity from renewable technologies by 2020.145 ■■CITY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT POLICIES Thousands of cities and towns have active policies, plans, and targets to advance renewable energy. Policy momentum continued in 2013 as city and local governments acted to reduce emissions, support and create local industry, reduce energy demand through efficiency improvements, relieve grid capacity stress, achieve security of supply and independence from the national grid, and become more resilient to climate change. Local governments made increasing use of their authority to regulate; make expenditure and procurement decisions; facilitate and ease the financing of renewable energy projects; and influence advocacy and information sharing. (See Reference Table R19.) Increased co-ordination among local, state, and national governments is opening the door for municipalities to further accelerate the uptake of renewable energy and stimulate rapid market transformation.146 Local government actions often complement, and in many cases go beyond, state and national policies. By the end of 2013, 36 Indian cities had finalised solar city master plans in response to the National Solar Cities Programme, which will support a total of 60 cities development as green cities.147 In Denmark, to help meet parallel national targets, Copenhagen is working towards the goal of 100% renewable power, heating, and cooling by 2035, and 100% renewable energy in all sectors by 2050, while Frederikshavn aims for 100% renewable energy by 2015.148 Several U.S. cities including Greensburg (Kansas), Austin (Texas), and San Francisco (California) have implemented sector-specific 100% renewable energy targets and policies that go beyond state and national targets.149 In turn, national governments often observe sub-national level actions and consider using successful programmes as blueprints for national policies.150 China, for example, is experimenting with carbon trading mechanisms on the local level before potentially launching a nationwide scheme: five cities and two provinces are testing cap-and-trade mechanisms to reduce pollution and stimulate investment in low-carbon energy.151 Local and/ or community-owned energy projects have supported a rapid increase of renewable capacity in Europe, by mobilising private investment and tackling the NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) opposition by turning it into YIMFY (Yes in My Front Yard).152 In turn, many national and sub-national authorities across Europe are advancing incentives for community energy projects to reach their targets. Scotland, for example, set a target of 500 MW for community- and locally owned renewable capacity in 2013, and the U.K. launched a fund to support urban community energy projects.153 As cities have become increasingly important for achieving national goals, their participation in the design and development of “vertically integrated” state and national policies has grown. In this way, cities are exploring how to tap into new climate financing mechanisms for emerging economies and developing countries, such as Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs).154 In South Africa, cities are engaging with the national government to help achieve the national greenhouse gas emissions reduction target of 34% by 2020 through the use of renewables in buildings.155 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) has advanced its Low Carbon Model Town project using Yujiapu (China), Samui Island (Thailand), and Da Nang (Vietnam) as the first three case studies.156 In 2013, eight “model cities”— in Brazil, India, South Africa, and Indonesia—began formulating low-emissions development strategies, which includes the use of renewables, using a common methodology developed by ICLEI for local governments.157 Local governments around the world continue to establish new climate and energy plans and targets, and to revise existing ones. In 2013, Sydney, Australia, set the goal to achieve 100% renewable energy for power, heating, and cooling by 2030, and Yamanashi, Japan, targeted local generation of 100% renewable electricity by 2050. They joined over 41 cities that have already achieved 100% renewable energy in at least one sector or aim to do so over the next few decades.158 London, U.K., began developing a plan in 2013 to assess the city’s energy delivery infrastructure, including the improvements required to enable the feed in of surplus renewable electricity to the grid.159 By year’s end, cities from across Europe had submitted 734 Sustainable Energy Action Plans under the EU Covenant of Mayors, bringing to 3,333 the number of European local governments with action plans, all aiming to reduce emissions by at least 20–40% by 2020 through the use of energy efficiency and renewables.160 In the United States, more than 50 local governments— including Washington (D.C.), Des Moines (Iowa), and Santa Barbara County (California)—released a plan to enhance communities’ resilience to climate change through steps that include increasing use of renewable energy and energy efficiency in buildings and other infrastructure.161 Also in 2013, Asheville, North Carolina, voted unanimously to phase out the use of coal-fired power and to move to renewable energy.162 Municipally controlled or -owned utilities allow local governments and citizens to play a greater role in planning and deploying renewable energy, and enable local governments to directly advance targets, incentives, and policies that encourage private or community investment in renewables. In 2013, Hamburg, Germany, held a public referendum that determined that the city council should re-acquire a controlling stake in the local electric power grid, with the aim of deploying affordablePDF Image | About ElectraTherm
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