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been attributed to the stability of the institutional frameworks over the last two decades.13 Micro- and pico-hydro stations as small as 1 kW are common in many countries, providing local communities with affordable electricity.14 Typically, such hydro systems operate reliably for at least 20 years and require minimal maintenance (other than keeping the intake screen free of debris). Nepal had more than 2,500 micro- and pico-hydro systems installed by the end of 2012, with a total capacity of 20 MW.15 In addition, several 1 kW systems have been installed in southern India, mostly by private parties and without government support.16 To fuel engine-powered generators in a rising number of countries, vegetable oils from coconut, jatropha, and other sources are being used to displace diesel. In Thailand, biodiesel for electricity generation is being produced on a small scale from used cooking oil.17 In India, Vietnam, and elsewhere, biogas produced from dry wood, weeds, and rice husks is used increasingly to fuel engines, driving generator sets to supply electricity to mini-grids.18 Mini-grids are becoming increasingly prevalent around the world.19 Their technical evolution in the last few years, including the use of modular technology to integrate renewables, has led to a scaling up of renewables powered mini-grids. In addition, advances in information and communication technology applications for power management and end-user services are improving metering and billing, load management, and remote diagnostics.20 As part of India’s programme to increase access to electricity, over 80 villages had operating mini-grids using gasifiers and locally available biomass residues (including mustard stems, corn cobs, and grasses procured from local farmers) by mid-2013.21 The rural heating and cooling sector has progressed due to advances in technology, as well as to the increasing popularity of programmes educating rural populations about the benefits of using modern biomass and solar thermal systems for clean cooking, and water and space heating.22 The Africa Clean Cooking Energy Solutions Initiative was established to promote enterprise-based large-scale dissemination and adoption of clean cooking solutions in sub-Saharan Africa. The phased implementation of this programme began in 2013 in consultation with over 130 stakeholders from 26 African countries.23 To date, however, there have been very few successful cases of international, large-scale deployment of improved cookstoves.24 Clean cookstove designs are tremendously diverse, and new ones are still emerging. Some models use alternative clean fuels, whereas other advanced stove designs rely on traditional biomass but increase the efficiency of the combustion process, thereby reducing the amount of fuel consumed to provide the same amount of heat. Biomass cookstove designs that can achieve high levels of performance include forced air and gasifier stoves, which lower emissions significantly and reduce fuel use by 40–60% relative to an open fire.25 Such efficient biomass cookstoves are being sold for as little as USD 5–25 each.26 These advanced cookstoves rely primarily on the use of traditional biomass from forest fuelwood, crop residues, and animal dung. A wide variety of other fuels are also being used for household cooking purposes (although at a far smaller scale). These include ethanol, biogas, wood pellets, and solar energy, as well as non-renewable fuels such as coal, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).27 Simple anaerobic digester technology can produce clean biogas fuel for cooking from animal manure, crop residues, and other organic waste feedstocks. These biogas systems perform better in warmer climates, but they can function under a variety of conditions, and their numbers continue to increase. Biogas is best suited for the estimated 155 million households and commercial farms where sufficient animal manure (and human waste) can be collected on a daily basis.28 Widespread acceptance and dissemination of biogas technologies have yet to materialise in many countries, due mainly to the high capital cost, which makes even small-scale units unaffordable for poor households.29 However, domestic-scale biogas installations have surged in some countries in recent years, driven by a number of international programmes.30 In 2013, China added 1.8 million units to bring the total to more than 43.5 million, thereby remaining the leader in the use of small-scale biogas plants.31 India constructed about 125,000 units during 2012, bringing the total to nearly 4.7 million by early 2013.32 By the middle of 2013, Nepal had more than 290,500 biogas plants in use, due at least in part to a multi-year government consumer subsidy, and Kenya had more than 9,000 units in place.33 Under suitable circumstances, solar thermal cookers can save time, work, money, and the need for combustible fuels. A large number of solar cookers have been deployed in Nepal, especially in refugee camps and small villages in the Himalayas.34 However, solar cookers, once considered a popular choice, are now on a waning trend.35 The cookers are unfamiliar to those accustomed to preparing food over an open flame, often after the heat of the day has passed, so adaptation to these stoves requires training and follow-up.36 The same is true for other cooking technologies. The transition of advanced cookstoves from the laboratory to households is not an easy task. Awareness-raising, targeted product trials, demonstrations, and feasible financing mechanisms are often all required to encourage people to move away from their traditional cooking methods. Improved cookstoves that are designed to operate similarly to traditional stoves have been accepted culturally by many developing country households. However, they continue to face severe market challenges in communities with relatively easy access to traditional biomass fuels.37 In cold climates, cookstoves are also often used to provide space heating, which can influence the choice of stove design and fuel. RENEWABLES 2014 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT 95 05PDF Image | About ElectraTherm
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