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Therefore, urgent and tough action is required to attain the climate change objective, with global emissions per unit of output needing to be reduced by 65% by 2035 (ibid.). Major energy efficiency improvements are needed, and can contribute 50% of the required energy emissions reductions. The fossil fuel subsidies must be abolished and disincentives, such as sufficient carbon pricing, need to be established to support more low-carbon technologies. Also of great importance is the scale-up and protection of energy sector R&D. Technologies based on renewable and nuclear energies, and carbon capture and storage (CCS) have important and large roles to play, providing 60% of the global electricity production in 2030 in the 450 Scenario. If nothing is done, fossil fuels will still provide 65% of the generation (Birol, 2011). Awareness of the current global energy situation and possible dire future climate change outcomes are strong incentives for urgent action, particularly for expanding the use of clean, renewable energy resources. Providing affordable, reliable and clean energy to meet future needs while mitigating major climate change is an enormous challenge, and geothermal energy can make an important contribution. Geothermal Energy- a Global Perspective The main sources for geothermal energy are the heat flow from the earth‘s core and mantle (~40%), and that generated by the gradual decay of radioactive isotopes in the earth‘s continental crust (~60%). Together, these result in an average terrestrial heat flow rate of 44 TWth (1,400 EJ/yr), nearly 2.8 times the 2009 worldwide total primary energy supply, 509 EJth/yr, (IEA, 2011), which is about 1% less than the 2008 value (514 EJth/yr). Though the world‘s geothermal heat resources are enormous and ubiquitous, it is difficult to accurately determine potentials on a global basis due to their generally hidden nature (subsurface). This uncertainty is exacerbated because the technologies used to develop geothermal resources are evolving, extending capabilities and reducing costs, and thereby increasing technical and economic potentials. Therefore, there are considerable uncertainties in estimating the global geothermal resource potentials, and revisions are expected as more information and new technologies become available. The most likely worldwide total technical potential for geothermal resources located along tectonic plate boundaries and near volcanic hot spots has been estimated to be about 6.5 TWth (205 EJth/yr) (Stefansson, 2005), about 40% of the 2009 worldwide total annual supply. Of this total, identified hydrothermal resources capable of development for electricity generation using conventional methods (T > 130 °C) amount to some 200 GWe (5.7 EJe/yr, or 57 EJth/yr), assuming a 10% electrical conversion efficiency. The remaining 4.7 TWth (148 EJth/yr), comprise lower temperature resources (T ≤ 130 °C) considered useful mainly for direct heat applications. These estimates may increase by factors of 5-10 if approximations for as yet hidden/unidentified resources are included (ibid.). Power generation potentials are also increasing as a result of technological advances providing conversion efficiencies now ranging up to 20% (for high temperature [> 180-200 °C] fluids). In addition to hydrothermal resources, several other potentially significant geothermal sources capable of power generation and direct heat use exist: 1) binary generation from the use of the hot water discharged from conventional plants (co-generation) and that available from the lower temperature geothermal resources (75 – 130 °C); 2) the cascaded use of hot water discharged from geothermal power stations for direct heat applications; 3) the massive geothermal energy potential available within drilling depths (3-10 km) in the hot rock of the earth‘s crust using enhanced geothermal systems technology (EGS); 4) the energy resources in the form of super-critical fluids inferred to exist deep (3-5 km) beneath hydrothermal systems; 5) hot water produced from oil and gas wells; 6) hot water present in deep sedimentary basins; 7) off-shore (under-sea) hydrothermal resources located along the submarine rifts and identified by the presence of hydrothermal vents 4PDF Image | Geothermal Research and Tech IEA
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