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a time, thus minimizing the impact on plant output. A schematic of a typical binary plant is shown in Figure 2. imported diesel fuel (5). 3. TECHNOLOGY STATUS Between 1980 and 1990, about 900 MWe of geothermal electric capacity were installed in the U.S.. Most of these plants were built in California and Nevada under power purchase agreements that guaranteed prices of more than 10 cents per kWh. Today, most of these price guarantees have expired, and plants must sell their power at competitive rates. With the loss of government market incentives, the advent of low-cost electricity from natural gas turbines, and the decline in electricity load growth, geothermal power plant construction in the U.S. declined greatly in the 1990s. Geothermal electricity costs, in the range of 5 to 8 cents per kWh, while very attractive compared to many other clean energy technologies, cannot compete against 3 cents per kWh electricity from natural gas power plants. The actual power output of plants has also declined, with U.S. generation now at 2,200 MW compared with a rated output of about 2,800 MW. This decline is mostly the result of changes at The Geysers, where power output has dropped from 1,875 MW in 1990 to 1,137 MW today. This drop is due both to the retirement of older plants and a loss in reservoir volume over the years. To address the reservoir depletion problem, two projects have been initiated to inject reclaimed wastewater into the reservoir. The first phase of the Southeast Geysers Effluent System has recently been completed. This transports 20,500 L/min (5,400 gpm) of wastewater from several Lake County communities to The Geysers via a 30 mile pipeline. This has enhanced steam production and increase power output by 39 MW between January 1998 and January 1999. A second phase of that project is planned, and there is a plan to transport wastewater from the City of Santa Rosa a distance of 41 miles to The Geysers. These projects not only prolong the lifetime of the geothermal resource but also provide a solution to wastewater disposal problems. As a result of the unfavorable economic conditions for geothermal energy in the U.S., the industry has looked for opportunities abroad. Good opportunities for geothermal power plants exist in many developing countries, where the Geothermal Energy Association has estimated there is the potential for approximately 75,000 MW of capacity for 30 years. Especially attractive are Central America (22,000 MW), Indonesia (16,000 MW), East Africa (10,000 MW), and the Philippines (8,000 MW). Considerable new activity was underway in the Philippines and Indonesia until the Asian economic crisis put many planned geothermal power plant construction projects on hold. Preheater/ Evaporator M Feed pump Turbine/ generator set Air-cooled condenser Injection well pump M TT Production well pump Fig. 2: Example binary-cycle geothermal power plant. Current installed costs for steam plants are about $700/kW of capacity for exploration and drilling plus another $700- 800/kW for the plant equipment, yielding a total cost of about $1400-1500/kW. Installed costs of binary plants are about $500/kW for exploration and drilling plus about $1600/kW for the plant equipment for a total of about $2100/kW. Operation and maintenance costs are typically about $100/kW per year for each type of plant. (4) These costs are for plants of 5 MW size or larger, which represent the vast majority of existing plants. For small plants under 5 MW in size, the cost per kW goes up significantly because of a loss in equipment economies of scale and because the fixed costs associated with exploring a site and drilling wells are divided by a smaller number of kilowatts. (Although a small plant requires a smaller- diameter well, as well diameter decreases, the well power output drops much more rapidly than the drilling cost.) In addition there are some minimum fixed O&M costs associated with operating a plant which also become significant when divided by a smaller plant capacity. Despite their higher energy costs, small-scale plants offer a number of potential advantages. Skid-mounted units can be built in the factory and shipped anywhere in the world. Because they are modular, a plant owner can start with a small investment and add additional modules later. Small plants can be designed to operate automatically. Their economics can become attractive in regions where low-cost shallow wells are available and where the exit brine from the plant can be used for direct heating applications. Small plants may be especially well-suited for mini-grid applications in developing nations where the competition isPDF Image | STATUS AND FUTURE OF GEOTHERMAL ELECTRIC POWER
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