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shows that, for seasonal storage, with one cycle per year, the energy saving over five years amounts to just €25, which leads to a maximum (affordable) specific investment cost of €0.25/kWh. This cost can only be viable using a cheap sensible heat TES system (i.e. basically a large water tank). PCM and TCS systems, which are in general much more expensive, are economically viable only for applications with a higher number of cycles. For applications with more than 1,000 cycles per year, the viable investment cost is higher than €250/kWh. Potential and Barriers TES technologies face some barriers to market entry and cost is a key issue. Other barriers relate to material properties and stability, in particular for TCS. Each stor- age application needs a specific TES design to fit specific boundary conditions and requirements. R&D activities focus on all TES technologies. Most of such R&D efforts deal with materials (i.e. storage media for different temperature ranges), containers and thermal insulation development. More complex systems (i.e. PCM, TCS) require R&D efforts to improve reacting materials, as well as a better under- standing of system integration and process parameters (Table 7). TES market development and penetration varies considerably, depending on the application fields and regions. Penetration in the building sector is comparably slow in Europe where the construction of new buildings is around 1.3% per year and the renovation rate is around 1.5%; of course, the integration of TES systems is easier during construction. The estimate of the European potential is based on a 5% implementation rate of TES systems in buildings [16]. Penetration could be much higher in emerging economies with their high rates of new building con- struction. TES potential for co-generation and district heating in Europe is also associated with the building stock. The implementation rate of co-generation is 10.2% [17], while the implementation of TES in these systems is assumed to be 15%. As far as TES for power applications is concerned, a driving sector is the concentrating solar power (CSP) where almost all new power plants in operation or under construc- tion are equipped with TES systems, mostly based on molten salt. This is perhaps the most important development filed for large, centralised TES installations [18]. In the industrial sector, about 5% of the final energy consumption is assumed to be used by TES installations. In particular, the use of industrial waste heat is expected to grow since the price of fossil fuels will rise and energy efficiency will be the key 18 Thermal Energy Storage | Technology BriefPDF Image | ENERGY TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
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