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BOX 3.1 Photovoltaic (PV) market segments Grid-connected market: The grid-connected PV market is segmented into the residential market, nonresidential market, and the utility market: Residential: Residential systems are installed at homes and are usually connected to the grid, with homeowners using grid energy when solar electricity generation is not sufficient to meet demand and often feeding energy back into the grid when the system generates excess electricity. Where “net metering” is available, the power generated by homeowners and fed back into the grid can be used to offset utility charges for grid power used at other times. In the United States, the average size of a 2011 residential installation was 5.7 kilowatts (kW). Nonresidential: These are systems installed at commercial, industrial, government, and similar buildings and sites. They are larger than residential installations and, like residential installations, often use net metering. In the United States, the average size of a 2011 nonresidential installation was about 116 kW. Utility: In utility systems, electricity is generated either (1) by independent power producers (IPPs) and sold on the wholesale electricity market, or (2) by utilities. This electricity is then sold to households, commercial, and industrial users. Installations greater than 1 MW accounted for 92 percent of annual utility installations in 2011. Off-grid market: In addition to the grid-connected market, there is a small off-grid market that includes a variety of uses such as homes not connected to the grid, industrial applications (e.g., lights and signs along highways), consumer goods, and military applications. There is also a small off-grid market, but that is not covered in this study, since it accounts for only a small share of PV installations. Source: Installation size from Sherwood, U.S. Solar Market Trends 2011, August 2012, 6–7; Sherwood, U.S. Solar Market Trends 2010, June 2011, 7. For an overview of the electric industry, see the EIA website, “Electric Industry Overview 2007,” http://eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/prim2/toc2.html (last accessed July 12, 2013). Residential and Nonresidential Services In the residential and much of the nonresidential market,4 customers generally contract with installers or third-party owners—firms that lease systems to customers or sell customers the power generated by a system (box 3.2)—to install a system on-site.5 These firms manage the provision of each major service associated with the installation, including (1) site assessment and design; (2) permitting, net metering agreements, and rebate applications; (3) financing (for some systems), including leases and power purchase agreements (PPAs)6 from third-party owners;7 (4)installation, involving the physical mounting of the system on the roof or ground, attaching the inverters and wiring, and connecting the system to the grid; and (5) operations and maintenance (O&M). Firms 4 For the purposes of this chapter, residential and nonresidential firms will be characterized as installers, while utility firms will be characterized as project developers and engineering, procurement, and construction (EPC) firms. In actuality, there is not a clear dividing line between industry sectors, and the installation of some large nonresidential projects will look more like the utility project development process than the residential installation process. 5 Firms generate their sales leads through marketing, customer referrals, and other sales channels, such as stores and roofing contractors. Marketing and other services not tied to specific installations, such as the distribution of modules, inverters, and other equipment, are not discussed in this chapter. Real Goods Solar, “Form 10-K,” March 15, 2012, 8; Sunvalley Solar, “Form 10-K,” April 16, 2012, 8; SolarCity, “Form S-1,” October 5, 2012, 27, 35, 96, 98, 103–104. 6 A PPA is a long-term agreement to purchase electricity. In the wholesale market, this is generally between a utility and an independent power producer (IPP). There are also PPAs between PV firms and on-site users such as homeowners and businesses. 7 Some forms of financing, such as loans, may be handled by the customer rather than the installer or third-party owner. 3-2PDF Image | Renewable Energy and Related Services: Recent Developments
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