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When solar heating is combined with energy saving and efficiency measures, even more significant energy savings can be achieved (Rantil, 2006). However to reach solar fractions above 90%, large scale solar thermal seasonal storage technologies and small scale more advanced high capacity thermal storage technologies are necessary. Promising new designs include “combi-systems” that combine water and space heating (Figure 7). This extends the operation period and thus improves profitability. Active solar space and water heating systems usually need a back-up of gas, electricity or wood stove and wetback system to provide sufficient amounts of warm water during periods of low insolation. These back-ups add to the overall system costs (IEA 2006b).New technology integrates a solar-assisted heating system with a heat pump resulting in an ‘ultra-high efficiency’ system between 125-145% compared with the common condensing boiler at around 107% (Daniëls and Farla, 2006). Concentrating solar heating systems These solar collection devices are usually used for medium scale heat application systems in industry, agriculture and food production. Similar to concentrating solar power (CSP) systems for electricity generation, a concentrating solar heater (CSH) device consists of a concentrator, receiver and transport- storage system. The concentrator captures solar radiation and directs it to the receiver where the heat energy is absorbed by a fluid – normally a special type of oil. The hot fluid is then transported in a pipe to enable the heat to be used directly via a heat exchanger or stored for later use at night or during less sunny days. A popular design consists of parabolic troughs in long arrays of identical concentrating modules, resembling trough shaped glass mirrors that track the sun daily from east to west. They concentrate the solar radiation on to the absorber pipe located in the focal line of the installation. Parabolic dish collectors also track the sun on two axes but the system units are usually smaller consisting of a dish 29 and a receiver unit installed at its focal point (IEA, 2006c; SolarPaces, 2007). Active solar cooling Solar-assisted cooling for air-conditioning and refrigeration systems are gaining in interest as they have reached the near-market stage of development. This thermally driven process is more complex, being based on a thermo-chemical sorption process. A liquid or gas can either be attached to a solid, porous material (adsorption) or absorbed by another liquid or solid material (absorption). Closed systems including both adsorption and absorption chillers can be used for central or decentralized conditioning. Open cooling cycles use desiccant and evaporative cooling systems that directly condition air. The technology has not been widely applied and needs more RD&D efforts to give reliability and to reduce costs that can compete with conventional cooling technologies. One advantage of solar-assisted cooling technologies is that peak cooling demands often correlate with peak solar radiation and hence with peak electricity loads for conventional air conditioners (IEA, 2006c). A different route could be to first generate electricity using solar photovoltaics to power a conventional refrigeration device. This option can be relatively costly and is not considered further here. The cost of solar-assisted cooling (SAC) is declining with experience in system design and the interest from refrigeration companies, solar thermal system manufacturers, policy makers and utilities has grown as peak power demands increase during periods of hot weather. Solar cooling tends to be effective during such periods since the peak demand for cooling coincides with peak solar radiation levels. District cooling systems from 5 to 300 MW are used in several cities including Paris, Amsterdam, Lisbon, Stockholm, and Barcelona using chiller/heat pumps, absorption chillers, compression chillers or a cold water distribution network, but solar energy is not currently utilised at this scale. Where naturalPDF Image | RENEWABLES FOR HEATING AND COOLING
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